Acute Stress Disorder Rehabilitation

Acute Stress Disorder Rehabilitation â€Å"Up to 65 per cent of Australians are likely to experience or witness an event which threatens their life or safety† (19). Quite often trauma victims can recover by their own. However, with others it may have a negative reaction to a traumatic event which can then lead to an illness called Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) (16). This disorder is associated with mental and physical conditions combined thus causing reductions in a person’s quality of life and as a consequence includes economic burdens (12). (3) Due to the result of all the accumulating evidence, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual – fifth edition (DSM-5) has marked and modified goals and criteria for ASD. Under new criteria, ASD diagnosis will no longer predict chronic Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). It will help to identify more severely affected survivors of trauma prior a diagnosis of PTSD can be made. Furthermore, the acuity people will perhaps get benefit from earlier interventions and sho rt-term rehabilitation programs that are the great help in the recovery process. Early rehabilitation interventions, including self-care strategy, thought control strategy, and cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) would speed up recovery and prevent chronic longer term problems. Besides that, family members, clinicians, and social support networks play an important role in support mechanism for recovery process. Inaddition, some potential barriers are also discussed in predicting of new problems and relapse which may occur in order to manage them. Potential recovery According to (2) DSM-5 in 2013, ASD was relocated in Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders. ASD is a psychological and physical shock which usually appears in response to a traumatic event in a person’s life. The acutely traumatized person can be directly exposed to or be the witness of a traumatic events such as serious accident (21%), physical assault (19%), rape or witnessing a mass shooting (50%) or natural disaster (10%)(19). (9) Symptoms of ASD occur immediately right after the trauma, and it lasts for more than 2 days and less than 1 month (4). The victim usually suffers from anxiety, distress, intense fear, helplessness, avoidance behaviours or re-experience the event (16). (15) It has been recorded that 15% to 45% of children and adolescents directly experience to at least one traumatic event. There is no statistics of how many distressed people can fully recover due to these traumas; however in many studies it has been confirmed that ASD patients can have a full rec overy under appropriate treatments. This study strongly emphasis on ASD rehabilitation rather than attempting to predict subsequent PTSD. Due to ASD timeframe is short, many victims are usually been ignored. Particularly, children and adolescent are in high risk of developing PTSD which leads to long-term psychological sequel in their life and causes a burden on health care systems. Therefore, (15) highlighted that recognizing ASD symptoms is an important step in toward enhancing intervention in the right time and speed up the recovery process. Additionally, with a formal diagnosis, it will allow highly distressed people to claim compensations from the health care service and payment for recovery treatment (4). In order to get appropriate diagnosis and early intervention, physicians play a critical role for assessments and monitoring all physical and psychological symptoms. Recovery process Whenever a referral from a physician has been made, the traumatized patients will go through a rehabilitation process. This process needs self-care strategy, thought control strategy, and CBT to support patients’ recovery and to decrease the future incidence of PTSD. (7) With self-care strategies, it focuses on personal strengths and their own judgment. Whether any kind of psychotherapies are provided to traumatic people, they should rely on their own recovery ability first. Without their own effort, all the supports will become ineffective. Traumatic patients, then, will receive reassurance and support, such as simple information and advices on self-care to overcome the normal recovery process. However, if the person cannot scope with these extremely severe events, and express a prolonged distress, or interfere with daily activities, they will need to be referral to another level of psychotherapy. Currently, it has been found that thought control strategy is an acceptable strategy for managing trauma related distress in the short term rehabilitation. Use of thought control strategy will aim to reduce the emotional distress by sharing the traumatic stories in the unforgettable period of time (14). There are four components (worry, distraction, social element and re-appraisal) which are the most commonly used to focus on helping the patient to normalize reactions to trauma (22). The first being Worry/Stress, it is best trying to get the patient to not concentrate on the stressful thought itself. Encouraging the patient to try and replace worry or stress with other day to day concerns that may hold a more minor bearing. The second is distraction. Finding a healthy distraction could be simple as think about things that provide a positive feeling or immerse the patient in an activity that is pleasurable. This will stop the patient concentrating on the traumatic event and allow them to go about a daily routine. The third would be social elements that could help. This could be asking or speaking with friends about their thoughts and how they have dealt with such events in their lives. Asking about what worked for them or what may have helped them avoid concentrating on the stressful event. This would be discussed fully so that the patient could reflect and understand how this could apply to their situation. The fourth is re-appraisal, trying and interpreting their feelings and understanding why these things are affecting them emotionally and rationalize their reactions to these feelings. From here they should challenge the validity of their emotions and feelings in order to control positive or negative feelings. If these self-care strategy and thought control strategy still have not worked well for recovery, CBT would be the next step of treatment in rehabilitation. (12) CBT will be given in five therapy sessions this comprising prolonged exposure (PE) and cognitive restructuring (CR). (12) found that these sessions provide brief forms of treatment in reducing acute symptoms of ASD in the initial month after trauma exposure. (8) PE focuses in emotional processing of thoughts. It helps interrupt and reserve recovery process by blocking cognitive and behavioral avoidance. This is accomplished through in vivo and imaginal expose. Vivo exposure involves repeatedly activities and situations that are avoided because of trauma. Overtime, the patient can reduce distressing emotion and fear. Then, they can cope effectively through these distresses. Imaginal exposure is related to repeatedly describe the event aloud in details, then recording. After that, they listen to their record in order to help t hem to realize their coping skill. Following initial assessment, patients were informed that they would be reassessed after 6 weeks Support mechanism Besides psychotherapy in rehabilitation process and early supportive care structure being delivered is an important step which supports the recovery process. Its result last long in reductions of ASD symptoms. Supportive care deliverers are family members, physician or social support network will help the traumatic patient go though the acute phase. (17on) In most cases, family members usually ask for advices on how to help their love in stressful situation. This will let the family to be able to utilize a communal experience in order to enhance the therapeutic growths. The use of positive family members has also been shown effectively assisted their traumatic member to manage their stressful conditions. They provide support, love and reinforce coping strategy with the trauma. The individual does not feel isolated, but also they feel warm and being caring. The individual, therefore, can describe what happened and how they response though this hard time. However in some cases family sometimes is not enough to support traumatic patients. If the trauma patients and their family feel unable to cope with this traumatic event, they can seek professional help from a physician such as an Australian Psychological Society (APS) psychologist. An APS psychologist will help the severe distress people to understand and manage the symptoms associated with the trauma. An APS psychologist would develop effective coping strategies for affected individual as well as their family to support the recovery process (18). If not, traumatic people also seek help from social support network such as Beyondblue, Sane or Mental Health organizations. Beyondblue is a support service designed to support, give advice and create actions. Whatever the situation is, Beyondblue always listens to their distress stories and share their misfortune. Beyondblue members can really help patients come to terms with their illness and help them to move forward (23). Similarly, Th e Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health is a not-for-profit organization which its aim to reduce the impact of trauma causing to the victims. They connect the capability of individual’s family with their organizations within the community. Therefore, they can understand about the traumatic victims, then, help them to prevent and recover from the adverse mental health effects of trauma. Barrier : wrong diagnosis, overwhelm with treatment, comorbid psychiatric disorders Due to a shorten timeframe of ASD, there appear some barriers which prevent the recovery process such as late diagnosis, overwhelmed treatments. Besides that some will subsequently develop comorbid psychiatric disorders. In case of traumatic events happen, the victims are late identified. Then, they will receive some simple advices how to overcome that situations. They are supposed to recover on their own. However, there are still significant people who cannot go through this recovery process by themselves. They need help from physicians to be assessed in order to receive a formal diagnosis. This process somehow is taken time which lead to a late diagnosis. If this is too late for appropriate treatment of stress disorder, it will develop further into PTSD. Furthermore, without this proper diagnosis, traumatic patients will not get the benefit from standard rehabilitation treatments (4). This problem can be predicted by the role of physicians who can manage clinical judgments in order to give their patient an early diagnosis. For those patients who have received treatments within hours or days after an acute trauma incident, they sometime do not response well to treatment plan due to overwhelm of different interventions. They will present a psychosocial and environment difficulties related to problems such as agitation, emotional pain, and dissociation. Quickly treatment but also slowly explanation and monitoring the response from patients will enhance effective support to recovery process. With patients that respond positively and appear to be recovered from ASD, they sometimes sudden relapse when new event happen to their life. They suffer from fear about safety for themselves as well as their family. The relapse can be recognized by close family members who help the patients to report it to physician in order to get continual treatment (17). Treatment of ASD is usually focused on its specific symptoms. However, some subsequently develop with ASD might be appear such as depression, withdrawal, shame or drug and alcohol abuse, and even suicidal behavior (17). The comorbid psychiatric disorders occur due to the inability scoping with that such traumatic events. These occurssing will significantly affect the recovery process; therefore, it is a requirement for careful attention in both pharmacologically and psychotherapeutically. The patient at high risk of suicide or drug and alcohol abuse should be highlighted during initial assessment. It is necessary to evaluate this potential harm which gets into the treatment pathway and the recovery process. Conclusions In conclusion, (4) the criteria set for ASD in DSM-V will allow identifying the people who had negative reaction to a traumatic event. Because of the short duration, it is necessary to assess severe traumatic people as quickly as possible. Then, they can receive an appropriate diagnosis in order to get benefit from rehabilitation treatments. Having an early treatment will move towards healing and recovery process. Moreover, as a result of suffering both physical and psychological conditions, these fragile people require a high level of support from family member, physicians as well as social support network to be back to normal life.

Cognitive Development

Abstract This report looks at cognitive development of an adolescent through the use of Piaget’s pendulum task, and aims to assess the level of cognitive development with comparison to literature in the field and furthermore provide suggestions of how a teacher could enhance the subjects learning in one key learning area. Pieget’s studies have been based around cognitive development. The development has 4 major stages. Each stage enables the person to develop ways of knowing. This report concentrates on the fourth stage, the formal operational stage. Critics of Piaget’s work are looked at and ideas such as learning, mentors and structures are looked at. It was found that while the results of previous Piaget’s tests were replicated, the observations suggest that the results can not be assessed through Piaget’s work alone. Furthermore, to enhance the learning of the subject it was found that the NSW geography curriculum has the potential with appropriate teacher stimulus to adequately provide for the student, although literacy could be focused upon. Introduction This report looks at cognitive development through the use of Piaget’s pendulum task. The pendulum task asks a person to figure out the variable that makes the pendulum swing faster, that is, increase the frequency. The way in which someone goes about the task is supposed to give an insight into the person’s level of cognitive development. Fundamental to Piaget’s work is that the brain and the environment interact in producing cognitive development, and that this development can be broken up into four major stages (Gleitman, 1995). Berger (1998) in review of Pieget (1952, 1970) states that these stages are age related, in that children generally reach each stage within a particular age range in sequence. As a child enters into each stage they develop new ways of knowing and understanding (new ways of gathering intelligence) as defined by the boundaries of that stage. In respect to the age of the student that undertook the pendulum task it is the fourth stage (the last stage) of Piaget’s cognitive development (Inhelder, B. Piaget, J 1958) that will be looked at. Berger (1998) summarises the fourth stage, the ‘formal operational stage’, as developing from 11-12 years old through to adulthood and is ‘characterised by hypothetical, logical, and abstract thought’ (Berger, 1998, p. 1). Piaget’s studies by focusing on mental processors and structures of thought has led to a large body of work which has provided insight into the way that we understand certain aspects of human behaviour, for ‘we now have a greater appreciation of the capacities and limitations of the types of thinking that are possible at various ages’ (Berger, 1998, p. 41) . As such this has greatly influenced educators in seeking â€Å"explanations for the difficulties encountered by the students in learning and as a basis for the design of more effective instruction’ (Adey, Shayer, 1993, p. 1). For example, a major research topic was whether or not the development of cognition could be accelerated. Adey and Shayer, (1993) found that cognitive development could be accelerated and that the effects could be long term (Adey and Shayer, 1993, pp. 26-27). Furthermore, Adey and Shayer (1993) cite work by Hallam, (1967) and Jurd (1973) who found the notion of concrete (the third stage) and formal operations can be applied to history, and that Fusco (1983) found that it could be fully applied in the context of English comprehension and social studies (Adey, Shayer, 1993, pp. 26-27). Thus, while Piaget’s studies on cognitive development have made a major contribution to knowledge in the field, his work has also led to a large body of criticism. Berger (1998, p. 45) suggests that many people think Piaget ‘underestimated the importance of external motivation and instruction†¦the role of society and home in fostering cognitive development (Berger, 1998, p. 45). Whereas socio-cultural theory ‘seeks to explain the growth of individual knowledge and competencies in terms of guidance, support, and structure provided by the broader cultural context’ (Berger, 1998, p. 6). For instance, Vygotsky, (1978) (cited in Bergman, 1998) thought that the development of cognitive competencies was from ‘the interaction between novices and more skilled members of the society, acting as tutors or mentors, in a process called an (Berger, 1998, p. 47) â€Å"apprenticeship in thinking† (Rogoff, 1990 cited in Berger, 1998). In addition, Flavell (1 985 cited in Gleitman, 1995, p. 521) suggests that evidence shows a child’s mental growth is more a sequence rather then proceeding in simple stages. Thus, this report through the use of the pendulum task will aim to: †¢ identify one students level of cognitive development who is 11-14 years old †¢ to compare and contrast the results with existing theory and research †¢ suggest how a teacher can best meet this child’s developmental needs in one key learning area. Method Participant There was only one person studied for the purpose of this report. The subject was male. He was 12 years and 4 months old. The subject was born in China in moved to Australia when he was 2. The subject speaks a Chinese language at home and English would be classed as the subjects second language. The subject is in year 7 at school and attends a school in the Sydney metropolitan area. He is not from a disadvantaged background. The subject was nervous before the task but settled down reasonably quickly. Procedure The study was carried out in the subject’s parent’s home. Informed consent was asked from the mother of the subject, a consent form was signed. At this stage confidentiality was ensured to both the mother and the subject and the reasons for the research were explained. A pendulum was made out of varying lengths of string and different weights. A frame supported the pendulum. There were 3 different sizes and lengths of weights and strings. The height and the force at which the pendulum could be released could also be varied by the subject. A pen, paper and stop-watch was provided to the subject. A video camera was placed a few meters away from the pendulum to record the procedure. The subject was asked to use the pendulum to find out what makes it swing faster, that is swing more times in a shorter space of time. The subject was told that they could use the different lengths of string or different weights and could use the pen, paper and watch. The subject then proceeds to go on with the experiment until they are happy with their results. A transcript of the recording is in appendix A Results To assess the subjects level of cognitive development the subjects actions were observed and analysised to see if they correspond with any of Piaget’s stages of development. Perhaps the most fundamental aspect of the analysis was that the subject already knew the answer to the problem, for example: Researcher: â€Å"Your job is to figure out what makes it swing faster† Subject: â€Å"The length of the string† Researcher: â€Å"How do you know that? † Subject: â€Å"I don’t really know, don’t know† Researcher: â€Å"Do you want to test it anyway† Subject: â€Å"Yes† Thus, the subject started with the longest string, heaviest weight and recorded the findings on a piece of paper. Then proceeded to use the same weight but the middle length string and then the shortest string, recording the results and time each swing (see table below). Longest 0. 86 Middle 0. 54 Shortest 0. 16 The subject was asked if he wanted to try different weights and the subject said â€Å"no, because it is the same, it is the same with any weight†. The subject was asked if he had learnt that at school and he was not sure. From analysis of these results it can be seen that the subject had some prior knowledge. Due to this he used logically experimentation through the use of isolating the variable to the length of string to determine whether he was right or not. The subject did not want to check the other variable of weight or height as he was sure it was length of string. As such hypothetical reasoning was also shown in the subject’s assurance that it was the string and not the weights that affected the frequency of the string. Discussion and Conclusion The aim of this report was to determine the level of cognitive development of a child between the ages of 11 and 14 years using Piaget’s pendulum task and then suggest how a teacher can best meet this child’s developmental needs in one key learning area. It was found that the subject displayed signs of hypothetical and logical thinking, both are attributes of a person of his age and at the fourth stage of cognitive development, the ‘formal operations stage’. Thus, the results of Inhelder and Piaget’s (1958) studies and later studies were replicated. In relation to whether the development was in sequence as Flavell (1985 cited in Gleitman, 1995, p. 521) suggests, the fact that there was prior knowledge could cast doubt on the stages theory as it would suggest that performance in these tasks are made up of more then the ability to logically reason. Furthermore, the experiment being greatly influenced by the fact that the subject already thought he new the answer to the problem when the task was initiated opens up ideas on accelerated cognitive development and the debate between Piaget and his theories and the social and instructional theorists. For example, Siegler, Liebert and Liebert (1973) found that concrete operational attributes could be taught to younger adolescences. Thus, the subject being of boarder-line age could have had his cognitive development accelerated during primary school either intentionally or unintentionally, this would be unknown. This raises the question of whether the curriculum today has been developed with these issues in mind. As such, further studies with the same task with a larger sample could answer these issues. In addition, the subject’s sister questioned whether it was all the time spent on the computer, internet or watching the ABC that the subject gained the prior knowledge, sense of logic and hypothetical reasoning. Perkins, Jay and Tishman (1983) cited in Adey (1997) put it down to psychological disposition, the tendency to behave in a certain way, that what matters is a person tendency invest themselves energetically in areas that cause development, that question the person. This psychological disposition could be inherited or could be developed through ways described in Vygotsky theories. That is through mentors, guidance and structure. In today’s technologically advanced society Vygotsky’s (1978) (cited in Bergman, 1998) theories may include the television and internet as providing instruction and guidance and basic learning. As Adey (2002) puts it ‘simple learning is relatively independent of maturation. Learning has no sense of direction’ (Adey, 2002, p. 19). Thus, it could be seen that the level of cognitive development obtained could be said to have been obtained through a process of development as described by Piaget in combination with a social process as described by Vygotsky (1978) and a simple learning process as described by Adey (2002). In suggesting how a teacher could best meet the subject’s educational needs in one key learning area, geography, the analysis of the subject was examined in reference to current junior geography curriculum. The NSW junior geography curriculum contains specified geography skills, tools and values that enable the teacher to integrate a range of teaching strategies that would enhance all areas of cognitive development, whether it be restrained to areas focused on by Piaget (1952, 1970) that Berger (1997) discusses or a broader range of areas as discussed by Vygotsky. As such, in suggesting that the subject is well catered for in these areas, the one area in which the subject may need help is literacy, in voicing his opinions. The NSW geography curriculum does specify an oral component, it is just that this could be emphasised. In addition, in relation to the study it has been found that acceleration programs in science have contributed to gains that are long lasting in English tests (Adey, Shayer, 1993). Consequently, continued tasks to develop the formal operations stage such as orally describing variable orientated tasks may have long lasting improvements. References Adey, P. Robertson, A & Venville, G. (2002). Effects of a cognitive acceleration program on Year 1 pupils. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 72, pp. 1-25. Adey, P. (1997). It All Depends on the context, Doesn’t It? Searching for General Educable Dragons. Studies in Science Education. (29), pp. 45-92. Adey, P. Shayer, M. (1993). An Exploration of Long-Term Far-Transfer Effects Following an Extended Intervention Program in High School Science Curriculum. Cognition and Instruction. 11(1), pp. 1-29. Berger, K. S. (1998). The Developing Person Through the Life Span. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. Gleitman, H. (1995). Psychology. 4th ed. New York, London: W. W. Norton & Company. Hallam, R. N. (1967). Logical thinking in history. Educational Review, 119, pp. 182-202. Inhelder , B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolenscence: An essay on the construction of formal operational structures. New York: Basic books. Siegler, R. Liebert, D. & Liebert, R (1973). Inhelder and Piaget’s Pendulum Problem: Teaching Preadolescents to Act as Scientists. Developmental Pschology. 9(1), pp. 97-101. Appendix Transcript of interview between researcher and subject. Researcher: What we are going to do is called a pendulum task. There is no right or wrong answer, what ever you do is Ok because it is just research. Subject: Ok Researcher: You can use the pen, paper and watch if you like. Subject: Ok Researcher: Do you know what a pendulum is? Subject: Yes! Researcher: So what we are trying to do is find out what makes it swing faster, that is make it swing more times more quickly. Subject: Ok. Researcher: Ok so there are a few things that it could be, it could be the weight, the length of the string, the height you drop it from or how hard you push it. Your job is to figure out what makes it swing faster. Subject: The length of the string. Researcher: Ok, so take this. (handing subject paper, pen and watch). You said that it was the length of the string that made it go faster, why did you say that? Subject: I don’t know, don’t know. Researcher: Do you want to test it anyway? Subject: Yes. Researcher: What do you want to start with? Subject: Longer string and heavy weight. Researcher: ok, so this is your longest string and heaviest weight. Subject: (drops the weight and times the swing and records results). Researcher: Do you want another look? Subject: No, its Ok. Researcher: Which one do you want use now? Subject: Same weight on a smaller string. Researcher: The medium string or the smallest string? Subject: the medium string. (Subject, performs task and records results). Researcher: Which one do you now want to try? Subject: The shortest string. Subject performs task again and records result) The shortest one is the quickest! Researcher: Do you want to try different weights to see if they do anything? Subject: No. Researcher: So you think it is just the length that affects it? Subject: Yes. Researcher: How come you don’t want to try different weights? Subject: because it is the same, the same with any weight. Researcher: did you learn that at school? Subject: I don’t know. Researcher: Ok, well i t was the string that affected it, your too smart, thanks very much for your help. Cognitive Development Abstract This report looks at cognitive development of an adolescent through the use of Piaget’s pendulum task, and aims to assess the level of cognitive development with comparison to literature in the field and furthermore provide suggestions of how a teacher could enhance the subjects learning in one key learning area. Pieget’s studies have been based around cognitive development. The development has 4 major stages. Each stage enables the person to develop ways of knowing. This report concentrates on the fourth stage, the formal operational stage. Critics of Piaget’s work are looked at and ideas such as learning, mentors and structures are looked at. It was found that while the results of previous Piaget’s tests were replicated, the observations suggest that the results can not be assessed through Piaget’s work alone. Furthermore, to enhance the learning of the subject it was found that the NSW geography curriculum has the potential with appropriate teacher stimulus to adequately provide for the student, although literacy could be focused upon. Introduction This report looks at cognitive development through the use of Piaget’s pendulum task. The pendulum task asks a person to figure out the variable that makes the pendulum swing faster, that is, increase the frequency. The way in which someone goes about the task is supposed to give an insight into the person’s level of cognitive development. Fundamental to Piaget’s work is that the brain and the environment interact in producing cognitive development, and that this development can be broken up into four major stages (Gleitman, 1995). Berger (1998) in review of Pieget (1952, 1970) states that these stages are age related, in that children generally reach each stage within a particular age range in sequence. As a child enters into each stage they develop new ways of knowing and understanding (new ways of gathering intelligence) as defined by the boundaries of that stage. In respect to the age of the student that undertook the pendulum task it is the fourth stage (the last stage) of Piaget’s cognitive development (Inhelder, B. Piaget, J 1958) that will be looked at. Berger (1998) summarises the fourth stage, the ‘formal operational stage’, as developing from 11-12 years old through to adulthood and is ‘characterised by hypothetical, logical, and abstract thought’ (Berger, 1998, p. 1). Piaget’s studies by focusing on mental processors and structures of thought has led to a large body of work which has provided insight into the way that we understand certain aspects of human behaviour, for ‘we now have a greater appreciation of the capacities and limitations of the types of thinking that are possible at various ages’ (Berger, 1998, p. 41) . As such this has greatly influenced educators in seeking â€Å"explanations for the difficulties encountered by the students in learning and as a basis for the design of more effective instruction’ (Adey, Shayer, 1993, p. 1). For example, a major research topic was whether or not the development of cognition could be accelerated. Adey and Shayer, (1993) found that cognitive development could be accelerated and that the effects could be long term (Adey and Shayer, 1993, pp. 26-27). Furthermore, Adey and Shayer (1993) cite work by Hallam, (1967) and Jurd (1973) who found the notion of concrete (the third stage) and formal operations can be applied to history, and that Fusco (1983) found that it could be fully applied in the context of English comprehension and social studies (Adey, Shayer, 1993, pp. 26-27). Thus, while Piaget’s studies on cognitive development have made a major contribution to knowledge in the field, his work has also led to a large body of criticism. Berger (1998, p. 45) suggests that many people think Piaget ‘underestimated the importance of external motivation and instruction†¦the role of society and home in fostering cognitive development (Berger, 1998, p. 45). Whereas socio-cultural theory ‘seeks to explain the growth of individual knowledge and competencies in terms of guidance, support, and structure provided by the broader cultural context’ (Berger, 1998, p. 6). For instance, Vygotsky, (1978) (cited in Bergman, 1998) thought that the development of cognitive competencies was from ‘the interaction between novices and more skilled members of the society, acting as tutors or mentors, in a process called an (Berger, 1998, p. 47) â€Å"apprenticeship in thinking† (Rogoff, 1990 cited in Berger, 1998). In addition, Flavell (1 985 cited in Gleitman, 1995, p. 521) suggests that evidence shows a child’s mental growth is more a sequence rather then proceeding in simple stages. Thus, this report through the use of the pendulum task will aim to: †¢ identify one students level of cognitive development who is 11-14 years old †¢ to compare and contrast the results with existing theory and research †¢ suggest how a teacher can best meet this child’s developmental needs in one key learning area. Method Participant There was only one person studied for the purpose of this report. The subject was male. He was 12 years and 4 months old. The subject was born in China in moved to Australia when he was 2. The subject speaks a Chinese language at home and English would be classed as the subjects second language. The subject is in year 7 at school and attends a school in the Sydney metropolitan area. He is not from a disadvantaged background. The subject was nervous before the task but settled down reasonably quickly. Procedure The study was carried out in the subject’s parent’s home. Informed consent was asked from the mother of the subject, a consent form was signed. At this stage confidentiality was ensured to both the mother and the subject and the reasons for the research were explained. A pendulum was made out of varying lengths of string and different weights. A frame supported the pendulum. There were 3 different sizes and lengths of weights and strings. The height and the force at which the pendulum could be released could also be varied by the subject. A pen, paper and stop-watch was provided to the subject. A video camera was placed a few meters away from the pendulum to record the procedure. The subject was asked to use the pendulum to find out what makes it swing faster, that is swing more times in a shorter space of time. The subject was told that they could use the different lengths of string or different weights and could use the pen, paper and watch. The subject then proceeds to go on with the experiment until they are happy with their results. A transcript of the recording is in appendix A Results To assess the subjects level of cognitive development the subjects actions were observed and analysised to see if they correspond with any of Piaget’s stages of development. Perhaps the most fundamental aspect of the analysis was that the subject already knew the answer to the problem, for example: Researcher: â€Å"Your job is to figure out what makes it swing faster† Subject: â€Å"The length of the string† Researcher: â€Å"How do you know that? † Subject: â€Å"I don’t really know, don’t know† Researcher: â€Å"Do you want to test it anyway† Subject: â€Å"Yes† Thus, the subject started with the longest string, heaviest weight and recorded the findings on a piece of paper. Then proceeded to use the same weight but the middle length string and then the shortest string, recording the results and time each swing (see table below). Longest 0. 86 Middle 0. 54 Shortest 0. 16 The subject was asked if he wanted to try different weights and the subject said â€Å"no, because it is the same, it is the same with any weight†. The subject was asked if he had learnt that at school and he was not sure. From analysis of these results it can be seen that the subject had some prior knowledge. Due to this he used logically experimentation through the use of isolating the variable to the length of string to determine whether he was right or not. The subject did not want to check the other variable of weight or height as he was sure it was length of string. As such hypothetical reasoning was also shown in the subject’s assurance that it was the string and not the weights that affected the frequency of the string. Discussion and Conclusion The aim of this report was to determine the level of cognitive development of a child between the ages of 11 and 14 years using Piaget’s pendulum task and then suggest how a teacher can best meet this child’s developmental needs in one key learning area. It was found that the subject displayed signs of hypothetical and logical thinking, both are attributes of a person of his age and at the fourth stage of cognitive development, the ‘formal operations stage’. Thus, the results of Inhelder and Piaget’s (1958) studies and later studies were replicated. In relation to whether the development was in sequence as Flavell (1985 cited in Gleitman, 1995, p. 521) suggests, the fact that there was prior knowledge could cast doubt on the stages theory as it would suggest that performance in these tasks are made up of more then the ability to logically reason. Furthermore, the experiment being greatly influenced by the fact that the subject already thought he new the answer to the problem when the task was initiated opens up ideas on accelerated cognitive development and the debate between Piaget and his theories and the social and instructional theorists. For example, Siegler, Liebert and Liebert (1973) found that concrete operational attributes could be taught to younger adolescences. Thus, the subject being of boarder-line age could have had his cognitive development accelerated during primary school either intentionally or unintentionally, this would be unknown. This raises the question of whether the curriculum today has been developed with these issues in mind. As such, further studies with the same task with a larger sample could answer these issues. In addition, the subject’s sister questioned whether it was all the time spent on the computer, internet or watching the ABC that the subject gained the prior knowledge, sense of logic and hypothetical reasoning. Perkins, Jay and Tishman (1983) cited in Adey (1997) put it down to psychological disposition, the tendency to behave in a certain way, that what matters is a person tendency invest themselves energetically in areas that cause development, that question the person. This psychological disposition could be inherited or could be developed through ways described in Vygotsky theories. That is through mentors, guidance and structure. In today’s technologically advanced society Vygotsky’s (1978) (cited in Bergman, 1998) theories may include the television and internet as providing instruction and guidance and basic learning. As Adey (2002) puts it ‘simple learning is relatively independent of maturation. Learning has no sense of direction’ (Adey, 2002, p. 19). Thus, it could be seen that the level of cognitive development obtained could be said to have been obtained through a process of development as described by Piaget in combination with a social process as described by Vygotsky (1978) and a simple learning process as described by Adey (2002). In suggesting how a teacher could best meet the subject’s educational needs in one key learning area, geography, the analysis of the subject was examined in reference to current junior geography curriculum. The NSW junior geography curriculum contains specified geography skills, tools and values that enable the teacher to integrate a range of teaching strategies that would enhance all areas of cognitive development, whether it be restrained to areas focused on by Piaget (1952, 1970) that Berger (1997) discusses or a broader range of areas as discussed by Vygotsky. As such, in suggesting that the subject is well catered for in these areas, the one area in which the subject may need help is literacy, in voicing his opinions. The NSW geography curriculum does specify an oral component, it is just that this could be emphasised. In addition, in relation to the study it has been found that acceleration programs in science have contributed to gains that are long lasting in English tests (Adey, Shayer, 1993). Consequently, continued tasks to develop the formal operations stage such as orally describing variable orientated tasks may have long lasting improvements. References Adey, P. Robertson, A & Venville, G. (2002). Effects of a cognitive acceleration program on Year 1 pupils. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 72, pp. 1-25. Adey, P. (1997). It All Depends on the context, Doesn’t It? Searching for General Educable Dragons. Studies in Science Education. (29), pp. 45-92. Adey, P. Shayer, M. (1993). An Exploration of Long-Term Far-Transfer Effects Following an Extended Intervention Program in High School Science Curriculum. Cognition and Instruction. 11(1), pp. 1-29. Berger, K. S. (1998). The Developing Person Through the Life Span. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. Gleitman, H. (1995). Psychology. 4th ed. New York, London: W. W. Norton & Company. Hallam, R. N. (1967). Logical thinking in history. Educational Review, 119, pp. 182-202. Inhelder , B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolenscence: An essay on the construction of formal operational structures. New York: Basic books. Siegler, R. Liebert, D. & Liebert, R (1973). Inhelder and Piaget’s Pendulum Problem: Teaching Preadolescents to Act as Scientists. Developmental Pschology. 9(1), pp. 97-101. Appendix Transcript of interview between researcher and subject. Researcher: What we are going to do is called a pendulum task. There is no right or wrong answer, what ever you do is Ok because it is just research. Subject: Ok Researcher: You can use the pen, paper and watch if you like. Subject: Ok Researcher: Do you know what a pendulum is? Subject: Yes! Researcher: So what we are trying to do is find out what makes it swing faster, that is make it swing more times more quickly. Subject: Ok. Researcher: Ok so there are a few things that it could be, it could be the weight, the length of the string, the height you drop it from or how hard you push it. Your job is to figure out what makes it swing faster. Subject: The length of the string. Researcher: Ok, so take this. (handing subject paper, pen and watch). You said that it was the length of the string that made it go faster, why did you say that? Subject: I don’t know, don’t know. Researcher: Do you want to test it anyway? Subject: Yes. Researcher: What do you want to start with? Subject: Longer string and heavy weight. Researcher: ok, so this is your longest string and heaviest weight. Subject: (drops the weight and times the swing and records results). Researcher: Do you want another look? Subject: No, its Ok. Researcher: Which one do you want use now? Subject: Same weight on a smaller string. Researcher: The medium string or the smallest string? Subject: the medium string. (Subject, performs task and records results). Researcher: Which one do you now want to try? Subject: The shortest string. Subject performs task again and records result) The shortest one is the quickest! Researcher: Do you want to try different weights to see if they do anything? Subject: No. Researcher: So you think it is just the length that affects it? Subject: Yes. Researcher: How come you don’t want to try different weights? Subject: because it is the same, the same with any weight. Researcher: did you learn that at school? Subject: I don’t know. Researcher: Ok, well i t was the string that affected it, your too smart, thanks very much for your help.

The Chronicles of Essay Writing Topics for Bank Exams

The Chronicles of Essay Writing Topics for Bank Exams In cricket, two kinds of matches are played. Therefore, it's necessary to compose an attractive paper if you want a simple time in school. How much you could earn while your paper work is being done by somebody, who knows the way to do it correctly! Explain how to earn a bed. Vital Pieces of Essay Writing Topics for Bank Exams Generally the toughest facet of developing a descriptive essay is picking the topic. The option of compare and contrast essay topics isn't a simple task because you have to demonstrate your analytical skills. Narrative essay is just one of the genres that enable students to produce their creative side and imaginations that may produce the composition an intriguing read. Narrative essays are told from a defined point of view, frequently the author's, therefore there is feeling and specific and frequently sensory details given to find the reader involved with the elements and sequence of the story. 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The Characters Of Nervousness In The Tell Tale Heart By...

In Tell Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe, the main character changed as a person through the duration of the poem due to the terrible crime he commited. Before our main character killed the old man he was living with, the character is seen as nervous, but also very gentle and loving. We start off the whole story with the main character saying, â€Å"TRUE! nervous, very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why WILL you say that I am mad† (Poe 1)? This proves that the main character was nervous because he states that he was in the first sentence. By saying that he was and still is nervous proves that the crime did not make him like this, the crime only made his nerves worse. The way our author, Edgar Allan Poe, writes this piece†¦show more content†¦I was singularly at ease. They sat and while I answered cheerily, they chatted of familiar things. But, ere long, I felt myself getting pale and wished them gone† (Poe 3). The man starts to see the officers c hatting gailey and he begins to feel less and less confident. Deep down inside our main character, a void is opening and this is causing him to become crazy paranoid with the sense that the officers know that he killed the old man and that they are playing some mind game with him. Continuing on, while the police men are talking to one another, our murderer begins to hear a faint ringing sound that becomes gradually louder. â€Å"I swung the chair upon which I had been sitting, and grated it upon the boards, but the noise arose over all and continually increased. It grew louder -- louder -- louder! And still the men chatted pleasantly , and smiled. Was it possible they heard not† (Poe 3)? By the man hearing a sound in his ears and becoming scared and reckless, he feels guilty because he is hiding away the remains of the old mans body in the floorboards that the officers are sitting over . When the story concludes, our murderer gives up on trying to hide his guilt away and admi ts that the did, in fact, kill the old man. â€Å" Villains! I shrieked, dissemble no more! I admit the deed! -- tear up the planks! -- here, here! -- it is the beating of his hideous heart(Poe 3)! The fact that the man heard a beating heart of the victim he killed, shows someShow MoreRelatedThe Black Cat And The Tell Tale Heart957 Words   |  4 PagesEdgar Allan Poe suffered through many unpleasant emotions through his life, the manner in which he expressed these emotions was his brilliantly horrifying short stories. In the two short stories â€Å"The Black Cat† and â€Å"The Tell Tale Heart† Poe uses characterization to portray the guilt of the narrator. â€Å"The Black Cat† short story’s writing has a morbid effect on readers and describes the torments of guilt. 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