Organizational Performance Essay

Abstract The measurement of organizational performance has undergone changes in relation to its measurement focus. From a uniquely financial perspective, it began to consider other nonfinancial perspectives, as well as to include a cause and effect relation between the operational dimension and the strategic dimension of organizations. Based on this current view, Performance Prism presents itself as a performance measurement system alternative to be used by organizations, with its main focus being the stakeholders in its field of operation. The objective of this study is to present a conceptual approach to the measurement of organizational performance by means of a review of literature, introducing the Performance Prism as the system for this measurement. Besides introducing the entire conceptual structure, based on the authors who proposed the model, Andy Neely and Chris Adams, this paper introduces a theoretical review regarding the concepts of performance measurement, differentiating the n ew tendencies of new approaches and showing the relation between performance measurement systems and the management of organizational performance. The Performance Prism model presents itself as a new performance measurement system alternative within the current need that goes beyond the financial approach. In relation to the Balanced Scorecard, a broadly used model nowadays, Performance Prism stands out for having a broader aspect with regard to the stakeholders considered, which are the model’s core focus. However, literature shows that the Performance Prism does not stand out yet as a broadly used model in the world. We conclude that this model can contribute towards organizations that seek changes in how they manage performances, mainly due to the fact that most often the stakeholders that belong to the environment in which they are inserted are who  generate the sustainability of these organizations, and therefore it is reasonable that they should be the focus of this organizational performance. Keywords: performance measurement; performance prism; stakeholders. 1. Introduction The measurement of organizational performance has undergone changes in relation to its measurement focus. From a uniquely financial perspective, it began to consider other nonfinancial perspectives, as well as to include a cause and effect relation between the operational dimension and the strategic dimension of organizations. Based on this current view, Performance Prism presents itself as a performance measurement system alternative to be used by organizations, with its main focus being the stakeholders in its field of operation. The objective of this study is to present a conceptual approach to the measurement of organizational performance by means of a review of literature, introducing the Performance Prism as the system for this measurement. 2. Measuring performance in the new context For a long time, performance measurement was focused only on financial  indicators, failing to address other perspectives influencing an organization’s global performance. Eccles (1998) understands that not considering financial indicators as the basis for performance measurement and treating them solely as a single aspect in a broader array of indicators is a requirement for this current competitive environment. Bogan and English (1997) present a differentiation among performance indicators in past and current contexts. Figure 1 shows the indicator set known as â€Å"old performance indicators†, focused on finance. Source: Bogan and English, 1997, p. 60 Figure 1 – Old performance indicators Figure 2 shows the approach with quality seen together with the financial aspects. Currently, other non-financial dimensions are included, as well as stakeholders such as clients and employees. In this context, changes shown in Figures 1 and 2 reflect the transformation of this performance measurement approach using only financial indicators into a set of financial and non-financial indicators. According to Cavenaghi (2001), for years financial performance measurement was seen as the only way, the correct and legitimate way of assessing effectiveness and efficiency in an organization. Drucker (1998) stresses that, regarding performance, it is important to consider the strategic approach that goes over an organization’s internal boundaries, overcoming the vision contemplating cost centers and approaching issues like proprietary and third-party technologies, changes in economy, markets, clients and future targets and financial markets. Source: Bogan and English, 1997, p. 60 Figure 2 – New performance indicators Dornier et al. (2000) see performance indicators as a guide for making investments, defining goals and also benchmarking vs. the actual status, in addition to a facilitating instrument for predicting and reducing uncertainties, identifying high priority actions, helping in engaging and managing staff and being a dynamic tool reflecting the organization’s  behavior. For Simons and Dà ¡vila (2000, p. 73), â€Å"classic financial indicators for measuring performance, i.e. return on net assets, return on assets and return on sales, are useful, but are not specifically destined to reflect the company’s quality of work when implementing strategies†. According to Corrà ªa and Caon (2002), traditional corporate performance measurement systems, in addition to focusing almost exclusively on financial indicators, did not support adequate decision making by the executives, since they did not adequately reflect the level in which the organization is being able or unable to reach meet strategic goals. According to Miranda and Silva (2002), any action to be implemented in a company needs follow-up to know to what extent it is progressing regarding defined goals and which corrective actions should be adopted if required. According to these authors, companies need to valorize performance measurement for the following factors: – Controlling the company’s operating activities; – Feeding employees’ incentive systems; and – Controlling planning. Thus, performance measurement needs to be a part of the control process, involving strategic, tactic and operating levels, continuously assessing planning and actions implemented under different perspectives, such as clients, processes, collaborators, shareholders and other that can interfere with an organization’s global performance, not solely contemplating the financial perspective. 3. Performance Management and Performance Measurement System To Neely et al. (1995), a performance measurement system must contain individual indicators, but inter-related regarding a specific environment, as shown in Figure 3. According to these authors, when designing a performance measurement system the following aspects must be considered: – What performance indicators are to be used? – What are they used for? – How much will they cost? – What benefits will they bring? Source: Neely et al, 1995, p. 81 Figure 3– A structure for the performance measurement system design According to Lebas (1995), measuring performance and managing performance are not separated. He states that there is an interactive process between those two aspects. Performance management is an organizational philosophy supported by performance measurement. According to the author, approach types are different, but in the first case, it is worried with related issues, such as training, incentives, compensation, management style and communication. In the second case, it is aimed at measuring potential, inputs, outputs and deviations. Bititci, Carrie and Mcdevitt (1997) understand the performance measurement system as the information system that represents the core of the performance management process. Figure 4, presents the performance management system according to the authors and the position of the performance measurement system. Source: Bititci, Carrie and Mcdevitt (1997) Figure 4 – The performance management process and the position of the performance measurement system. For these authors, performance management is the process in which a company manages its performance aligned with corporate and functional strategies. The goal of this process is to promote a continuous, proactive control system where functional and corporate strategies are outspread to all business process, activities, tasks, and people and feedback is obtained through a performance measurement system, allowing for an adequate decision making management. According to Martins (1998), the performance management process must be the way in which a company manages performance, aligned with corporate and functional strategies and goals derived from these strategies. According to this author, strong market competitiveness characterizes corporate environment, requiring products with quick technologic innovation  and short life cycles, forcing the performance management to be aligned to these concepts, as presented below:- Acknowledgement of manufacturing  (operations) as the missing link in company strategies and a subsequent source of competitive advantage; – Appearance of Total Quality management as a management philosophy – continuous improvement for products and processes; – Leaving the mechanistic view of the world for a systemic view; – Company aimed at the satisfaction of its stakeholders; – Multiple competitive criterions: quality, cost, reliability, time, flexibility, innovation and service; – Importance of integrating the company’s supply chain, both external and internal; and – Valuing teamwork and proactive decision making, anticipating potential future problems. Regarding the performance measurement system, Martins (1998) sees it in the core of the performance management process, integrating all relevant system information, such as strategy development and review, managerial accounting, management by objectives, nonfinancial performance indicators, bonus incentive structure and individual performance evaluations. For this author, new performance measurement systems must possess the following characteristics: – Be aligned with competitive strategy; – Contemplate financial and non-financial indicators; – Drive and support continuous improvement; – Identify trends and advancements; – Be clear in cause-effect relationships; – Be easily understood by employees; - Encompass the entire supply chain process; – Real -time information and be dynamic; and – Evaluate the group, not the individual, in addition to influencing the attitude of collaborators. For Corrà ªa and Corrà ªa (2005), performance measurement systems are part of the control and planning cycle, crucial for operations management, provided that performance indicators provide the means for collecting performance data that, after evaluated according to certain standards, support the decision making process. According to these authors, establishing an adequate performance evaluation system is crucial for influencing desired behaviors in people and in operations systems so that certain strategic intentions are more likely to become actions aligned to the desired strategy. Thus, performance measurement systems provide, through a set of information, support for the performance management process, which has a broader approach. When designing  a performance measurement system, one must understand the adoption of me measurements, in terms of acquisition costs, justification and utilization and these must be inter-related, being part of the organization’s planning and control cycle. 4. Performance Prism as a Performance Measurement System Evaluating organizational relationships with its main stakeholders and their links to strategies, processes and competencies can be a way to leverage and improve corporate performance. For Frost (2000), depending on business nature, stakeholders can be external, internal clients, regulation authorities, shareholders and others. This author understands one should consider all stakeholders involved with the organization, to the extent of if one is forgotten in  the management and evaluation system, consequences can be dramatic for the business. â€Å"Our business is to create value for our stakeholders; our first job is to know who those stakeholders are and what they value in our performance† (FROST, 2000, p.31). The Performance Prism was created by Nelly and Adams (2000). These authors proposed the model from the premise that several approaches or methodologies for measuring performance have their own context; nonetheless, they all seek to measure performance. In this conte xt, these authors propose the Performance Prism, stating that it is a broader models, since it considers the five surfaces of a prism. According to Adams and Neely (2003), in the structure of the Performance Prism, stakeholder satisfaction, as well as its contributions act at the core of the search for success in an organization. For the authors, even though process perspectives, strategies and competencies are involved and serving as supporting perspectives to reach stakeholder satisfaction or receive their contribution, as shown in Figure 5, stakeholders are the focal point of Performance Prism. According to Neely, Adams, and Crowe (2001), the model has been applied in a real number of situations. It has also been used in mergers and acquisitions, aimed at improving these processes. Adams and  Neely (2006) understand that the Balanced Scorecard, proposed by Kaplan and Norton (1992), takes only three stakeholders into account: investors, clients and employees. The Performance Prism also considers employees, vendors, intermediaries, regulation authorities and the community. The model considers stakeholder satisfac tion and contribution in a unique way. Source: Adams and Neely (2003) Figure 5 – Performance Prism in action Since this model is derived from the process strategy, thus acknowledging the required competencies, the Performance Prism promotes a more comprehensive approach and stimulates views at a magnified angle, in other business dimensions, where possibly performance is missing in the measurement structure. The result is much more realistic for business leadership (ADAMS; NELLY, 2006). Each of the fine surfaces of the Performance Prism represents a key area crucial to success. The weight of each surface will depend on established strategic goals, such as cost reduction, brand increase, research synergies and others. Figure 6 presents the five surfaces of the Performance Prism model and its approaches. Each surface of the Prism must represent an approach perspective – processes, strategies, competencies, contribution and stakeholder satisfaction – in performance measurement. Source: Adams and Neely (2006, p.2) Figure 6– The five surfaces of the Performance Prism model For Adams and Neely (2006), the following are fundamental questions that must be considered when approaching the Performance Prism: a) Who are our key stakeholders and what do they want and need? b) What strategies are we using to meet their needs and desires? c) What processes are needed to put them into practice and reach these strategies? d) What competencies are required to operate and augment these processes? e) What do we want and need from the stakeholders to maintain and develop these competencies? This way, the Performance Prism model, in addition to considering perspectives of processes, strategies and competencies, also considers stakeholders contribution and satisfaction. It focuses on stakeholders involved in the environment of an organization through five perspectives, considering stakeholders satisfaction, stakeholders contribution ad deriving objectives from this process strategy and evaluating inherent competencies to support them. 5. Final Considerations Through the approach mentioned here, developed using a bibliographic research on the theme, it is possible to see that the Performance Prism model is a new alternative as a performance measurement system within the current perspective, going beyond the financial approach. Compared to the Balanced Scorecard, a model widely used currently, the Performance Prism is different because it possesses a broader aspect regarding the considered stakeholders, who are also the core of the model. This model also has a cause-effect relationship structure that follows an orientation from stakeholders demand, over which the strategy is designed, driving processes and competencies for an organization that wants the satisfaction of these stakeholders. Because it is a more recent model, compared to others, consecrated by their application in organizations, the Performance Prism still does not represent a widely used model  worldwide. Nonetheless, it can contribute to organizations seeking changes in the way they manage performance, especially because most of the times, their stakeholders generate the sustainability of these organizations, thus  being only reasonable that are central to the organizational performance. As a recommendation for future studies, it is required to study the application of the Performance Prism in depth, allowing for a review of its adaptability and effectiveness in a larger set of organizations, since there are currently a few cases regarding the application of this model for measuring performance in literature. References ADAMS, Chris.; NEELY, Andy. Using the Performance Prism to Boost the Success of Mergers & Acquisitions, Accenture, New York. In: . (out. 2006). ADAMS, Chris.; NEELY, Andy. The New Spectrum: How the Performance Prism Framework Helps, Business Performance Management, Norwalk, nov. 2003. In: . (jul.2007). BITITCI, Umit S.; CARRIE, Allan S.; MCDEVITT, Liam. Techniques integrated performance measurement systems: an audit and development guide. The TQM Magazine. v.9, n.1, p. 46-53, 1997. BOGAN, Christopher E.; ENGLISH, Michael J. Benchmarking: Aplicaà §Ãƒ µes prà ¡ticas e Melhoria Contà ­nua. Sà £o Paulo: Makron Books, 1997. CAVENAGHI, Vagner. Gestà £o do desempenho empresarial: A contribuià §Ãƒ £o da à ¡rea de manufatura. 2001. Tese (Doutorado em Engenharia de Produà §Ãƒ £o) – Programa de Pà ³sGraduaà §Ãƒ £o em Engenharia de Produà §Ãƒ £o, USP, Sà £o Paulo. CHIAVENATO, Idalberto; CERQUEIRA NETO, Edgar P. Administraà §Ãƒ £o Estratà ©gica: em busca do desempenho superior, uma abordagem alà ©m do Balanced Scorecard. Sà £o Paulo: Saraiva, 2003. CORRÊA, Henrique L.; CAON, Mauro. Gestà £o de Servià §os, Sà £o Paulo: Atlas, 2002. CORRÊA, Henrique L.; CORRÊA, Carlos A. Administraà §Ãƒ £o de Produà §Ãƒ £o e Operaà §Ãƒ µes: Manufatura e Servià §os: uma abordagem estratà ©gica. Sà £o Paulo: Atlas, 2005. DORNIER, Philippe-Pierre; ERNST, Ricardo; FENDER, Michel; KOUVELIS, Panos. Logà ­stica e Operaà §Ãƒ µes Globais: Textos e Casos. Sà £o Paulo: Atlas, 2000. DRUCKER, Peter F. The Information Executives Truly Need. In: Measuring Corporate Performance. Boston: Harvard Business Review, 1998. p. 1-24 ECCLES, Robert G. The Performance Measurement Manifesto. In: Measuring Corporate Performance. Boston: Harvard Business Review, 1998. p. 25-45. FROST, Bob. Measuring Performance, Dallas: Measurement International, 2000. KAPLAN, Robert S.; NORTON, David P. The Balanced Scorecard: measures that drive performance. Harvard Business Review. p. 71-79, january-february 1992. LEBAS, Michel J. Performance measurement and performance management. International Journal of Production Economics. v. 41, p. 23-35, 1995. MARTINS, Roberto A. Sistemas de Medià §Ãƒ £o de Desempenho: Um modelo para Estruturaà §Ãƒ £o do Uso. 1998. Tese (Doutorado em Engenharia de Produà §Ãƒ £o) – Programa de Pà ³sGraduaà §Ãƒ £o em Engenharia de Produà §Ãƒ £o, USP, S à £o Paulo. MENDES, Dilermando P. O Balanced Scorecard como instrumento de avaliaà §Ãƒ £o do nà ­vel de desempenho logà ­stico em uma empresa de prestaà §Ãƒ £o de servià §os. 2002. Dissertaà §Ãƒ £o (Mestrado em Engenharia de Produà §Ãƒ £o) – Programa de Pà ³s-Graduaà §Ãƒ £o em Engenharia de Produà §Ãƒ £o, UFSC, Florianà ³polis. MIRANDA, Luis C.; GOMES DA SILVA, Josà © D. Medià §Ãƒ £o do Desempenho. In: SCHMIDT, Paulo (Org.) Controladoria: Agregando valor para a Empresa. Porto Alegre: Bookman, 2002. p. 131-153. NEELY, Andy; GREGORY, Mike; PLATTS, Ken. Performance measurement system design. International Journal of Operations Management. Cambridge, v.14, n.4, p. 81-114, 1995. NEELY, Andy; ADAMS, Chris. Perspectives on Performance: the performance prism. In: Handbook of Performance Measurement. London: Bouine, 2000. NEELY, Andy; ADAMS, Chris; CROWE; Paul. The Performance Prism in Practice. Measuring Business Excellence. v.5, n.2, p. 6-12, 2001. SIMONS, Robert; Dà VILA, Antà ´nio Medindo o Desempenho Empresarial. Rio de Janeiro: Harvard Business Review, Campus, 2000.

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Why should anyone care about becoming an educated person - Essay Example To give the readers a better understanding about this topic, this essay will first discuss about what an education person is and is not. In relation to the importance of continuous learning, reasons as to why each student should care about becoming an educated person will be tackled in details. most of us would aim to enroll ourselves in one of the colleges or local universities before we start a career in our chosen profession. However, the problem with some of us is that not all people who go through higher education are capable of utilizing what they have learned in school (Tauginas 9). Since not all people are capable of applying what they have learned into real-life situations, it is a wrong perception that becoming an educated person is all about receiving proper education. Hamilton mentioned that â€Å"becoming an educated person is ‘a lifelong process’†(82). It means that becoming an educated person should never be limited on receiving high grades in school curriculum nor by being able to complete the course requirements. Although receiving high grades in class is a stepping stone for further studies, it is essential for students to be aware that an educated person is way more than being able to receive high grades in one or more subject. Becoming an educated person is also more than being able to graduate from school. Furthermore, it is not about simply having a decent job nor being able to earn money (Hamilton 84). Instead, becoming an educated person is all about our ability to embrace new learning opportunities as it comes along our way. There are a lot of benefits associated with becoming an educated person. Aside from the fact that access to proper education can make us become a better person (Lin 21), becoming an educated person will definitely make us become well-rounded. Furthermore, access to

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Analysis of elizabeth barret browning's work and contemplation poem - Essay Example A lot of her works are in the possession of Moulton-Barrett family but the majority is safely kept in the Berg Collection of the New York Public Library. Elizabeth Browning was greatly enriched by the complex political, social and economic situation of the times as a lot of people she came across were from different ethnic borders and cultural backgrounds. Women poets during the Victorian Age, existed at a time when religion was a critical or vital part of their identities. â€Å"Work and Contemplation† is one of her reflective poems that make her readers to sit back and reflect upon the thoughts of the poet. In the poem the poet speaks of a lady who sits patiently at her spinning wheel spinning the yarn she has gathered. While engaged in her work of spinning, the woman sings an enchanting ballad or a bar Carole, which helps to make her work lighter and much more pleasant to perform. Elizabeth in her poem â€Å"Work and Contemplation† reflects on the aspect that even though the woman is doing a tedious job of spinning her yarn from morning to night, and though she thinks of her song, still she contemplates on the duty before her which is spinning. This can be clearly seen from these following lines in the poem – The poet wants to tell us that the lady has full control as she deftly carries out her work though she is contemplating on the song she sings. She also wants to let us know that it is possible to do both things at the same time as long as it is harmonious. Her Christian thoughts come to fore as she pleads with the reader to purse their work with full contemplation but at the same time let our souls pursue a much higher level of thinking to enjoy some respite such as the sweetness of a song, so our work would be less tedious and much more

Children and the Internet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Children and the Internet - Essay Example The aim of this paper is to explore the reasons why parents should monitor the time their children spend on the internet, and show the serious dangers that children come across when their internet time is not being supervised. It is very strange that some parents, who are normally very protective of their children, supervise their behavior in public spaces and warn them against the dangers of the strangers with candy; are not aware that internet is also a public sphere full with dangerous people. The biggest danger of the internet is that it is a virtual space. Hence, when parents think that their children are safe at home in the privacy their rooms, they are neither safe nor private if they have an unsupervised internet connection in their rooms. Thus, the internet creates an illusion of safety and privacy, while the children engage in various activities in the social networking sites. While some parents, whose children are probably better at using technology, are unaware the danger s of the internet; some people, including the educators, know its dangers but still advocate unmonitored internet usage in the name of â€Å"teen privacy†. ... Hence, monitoring internet activities of the children has nothing to do with their privacy, since they engage in social activities on the internet. Frances Jacobson Harris is one of the people, who underestimate the threats of the internet posed to the children. In her article â€Å"Teens and Privacy: Myths and Realities†, she called the parental concern with regard to the dangers of the internet as â€Å"technopanic†. Indeed, she seems very naive in a sense that she resorts to the testimonies of her students as evidence of her rather weak arguments. She simply believes that children would automatically block the sexual predators and she supports her naive â€Å"belief† with her students’ responses like this: â€Å"This guy wouldn't give up asking to meet me in real life (through a game site) so I blocked him.† And this is â€Å"end of story† for her (76). However, students’ responses to the casual questions of their teacher are far fr om being credible sources for an article; thus, her argument is not convincing. Plus, her students’ responses would not change the fact that many children still fell victim to the sexual predators. Indeed, Prevent Child Abuse Kentucky warns families and asks them not to be naive and think â€Å"my child knows better† (3). In â€Å"Internet Safety Toolkit†, they point out the fact that â€Å"predators are skilled at using manipulation. They portray themselves to be a friend, boyfriend, girlfriend, mentor or confidant to a child and even sometimes to the child’s parents or caregivers as well. They sometimes make themselves out to be helpful, interested and wanting to improve the life of their potential victim in some way† (3). Hence, children may not automatically block the masters of sexual manipulation as Harris

Military rape Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Military rape - Essay Example However, today female soldiers working in the US military are also extremely vulnerable to sexual molestations mostly by their male counterparts (Whitten, 1999). As a result of the increasing rate of the military rape, today young people, particularly female candidates are reluctant to join the army (Nantais & Lee, 1999). This paper will specifically discuss the intensity of military rape in the US with particular reference given to various elements of sexual behavior. This will also discuss four different theories like the feminist theory, the cultural pathology theory, the strategic rape theory, and the biosocial theory in order to identify the root causes of military rape. Background Rape, sexual assault, and sexual harassment that occur during military service are generally termed as Military Sexual Trauma (MST) by the Department of Veterans Affairs (DVA). The term ‘wartime rape’ indicates mass wartime rape rather than isolated examples of rape by individual soldiers . Admittedly, there are no reliable statistical data on wartime rape due to pressures from superior officers and the reluctance of victims to come forward. Reports indicates that increases in the frequency of wartime rape might range from an estimated 300% to 400% by the end of the World War II (Gottschall, 2004). While analyzing the available statistics relating to the number of cases reported, it seems that military rape has been becoming a mounting challenge to the US army. According to some estimates, more than half a million people have been raped while serving the US army; and nearly 100,000 cases of military rape have been occurred within the past seven years (Koss, 2004). Although both men and women in the military are exposed to sexual harassments, women are the major victims of unwanted sexual behaviors. To illustrate, a 1996 Department of Defense survey conducted on 90,000 active duty members (including men and women) revealed that 55 percent women reported unwanted uninv ited sexual attention or behaviors whereas the same was reported by only 14 percent men; and the survey also indicated that 78 percent women and 38 percent men experienced one or another form of sexual harassment or sexual assault (Koss, 2004). Unfortunately, many of these cases go unreported due to various reasons, and a significant percent of the reported cases fail to go to full trial or investigations. A recently published report indicates that â€Å"only 3 to 4 percent of cases reported to the Army Criminal Investigation Division proceed all the way through the system to court martial† (Koss, 2004). Evidently, this situation points to the sexual behaviors of military personnel which can increase the rate of military rape. A Detailed Study As discussed already, the incidence of military rape has been significantly increasing over the last decade. Many of the female soldiers who took part in the Iraq war reported that they were raped by their male counterparts. Some studie s point out the possibility that one out of every four women that serve the military will have to face some form of sexual assault within the time span of their careers (Kitfield, 2012). (Details of this citation not found in the proposal you sent. So not included in the reference list). According to Pentagon reports, over 19,000 sexual assaults occur in the US military annually and this data include the cases of both the genders.

Illegal Immigration and enforcement of laws Essay Example for Free

Illegal Immigration and enforcement of laws Essay America, as we know it today, is a melting pot of many nationalities, cultures, races, ethnic backgrounds, and religious pursuits. This is the result of the early massive immigration to American shores from countries across the globe seeking a new life inside the borders of the United States. This dream has not waned despite the march of time, with individuals coming from all walks of life, striving to fulfill their dreams of starting a new life for themselves and their families in the United States, or to send them financial support to alleviate the living conditions of their loved ones abroad. But recent times and events have turned the once open gates for these immigrants to closing windows of opportunity as the United States enforces some of the harshest laws primed to keep illegal immigrants from ever setting foot on American soil. The latest battleground for the enforcement of laws regarding the entry and stay of illegal immigrants in the United States is in the state of Arizona. Arizona Senate Bill 1070, the new debatable statute that empowers the police in the state to demand for the papers of any individual that they believe to have illegally entered the United States. Some of the laws main advocates include the chief of the Maricopa police department, Joe Arpaio and Russell Pearce, the chief sponsor of the bill in the state Senate. Pearce has a personal angle to work for the strict enactment of the bill-Pearces son was shot to death by an illegal immigrant (Nathan Thornburgh). As Arizona Governor Jan Brewer affixed his signature to the controversial bill, enacting the same into law within the borders of the state, critics and opponents of the measure guaranteed that the measures passage into law will be met with stiff opposition. Many of the opponents of the bill promised stiff legal sanctions and economic boycotts poised to train their guns at Arizona, an event that the state can ill afford as the state is still in the morass of the housing sector collapse that has buffeted the economy of the United States. In the moments before the bill was signed, protesters and police clashed in a rally that has led to minor clashes with authorities, with more than 1,500 people chanting, praying, criticizing or praising Brewer as he began to enact the law. Four of the protesters were taken into custody, after engaging police in a bottle throwing battle, with authorities clad in riot gear (Craig Harris, Alia Beard Rau and Glen Creno). The Republican governor is faced with a vigorous challenge in the primaries and will need the support of the Conservative bloc to hold on to her office, averred that the new statute is one of the new instruments that the state will use in addressing the crisis that they were not responsible in creating, and stated that the Federal government has refused to address this issue at their level. The new legislation has put Arizona squarely in the national spotlight, with no less than United States President weighing in on the matter and CNN broadcasting the signing of the law by Brewer live (Harris, Rau and Creno). In the opinion of Dr. George Weissinger, Ph. D. , the problem with the illegal immigrants coming through the widely porous border regions of the United States with its southern neighbor is a dilemma that is not confined to the problem with U. S. -Mexico immigration problems, and opines that the enforcement of the present set of immigration laws by the United States government only contributes to the ever-increasing illegal immigrant population of the United States. Weissinger (2003) argues that much of the societal perceptions of the illegal alien in the United States vary from the sympathetic to the bigoted. With this type of confusion on the response of the society to the true plight of the illegal immigrants entering the United States, the responses as mentioned above are to be expected (Weissinger). What is considered to be a prime catalyst in the formation of the opinions of the society against or for the illegal immigrants is the media; the media usually characterizes the illegal alien as one who crosses over the border of his own country to the next, with nothing more spurring him/her on than the possibility of being able to find a means of employment that will allow them to fend for their families back in their own native lands. But with the events that occurred that tragic day on the 11th of September, 2001, the image of the illegal alien has radically been transformed. The media is a powerful conveyor of the way that the illegal immigrant is portrayed in American or any other society. When the news broadcast images of immigrant day laborers, this image will serve as the standard by which society deems what it defines to be the image of the illegal aliens in the society (Weissinger). Many of these characterizations are more inclined on the aesthetics rather than the economic, health or issues that deal with conflicts with the law. Many residents in the area that illegal immigrant congregate usually fear a decrease in their property values, or even some have the notion that the illegal immigrants might become a hindrance to their business activities. These illegal immigrants flock to many locations in the United States where they hope that potential employers will hire them for the day, thus allowing them to send some financial aid to their families back home. But even without the Arizona and California laws, there is ample laws provided to the Federal government to deal with the problem of illegal immigrants (Weissinger). The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), under Title 8 USC Section 1357, has appointed officers and other personnel to implement the law on illegal immigrants, allowing them the mandate to question suspected illegal immigrants with regards to their continued stay in the United States, even without the benefit and requirement of a warrant. But unfortunately, the agency has been remiss in this duty to address this problem even before the enactment of the controversial Arizona statute. In the operating policy of the INS, now officially known as the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (BICE), the target of the body is not the illegal immigrants themselves, but the employers who hire these illegal immigrants, removing the demand, and not the supply, in an effort to discourage illegal immigrants from coming to the United States to find employment. These operating policies developed as a result of the implementation of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (Weissinger). But Arizona is not alone among the states of the Union trying to address their problems with regards to the burgeoning number of illegal aliens in their states. The Washington Times, known as a conservative publication, has recently reported that the illegal immigrant statute in California is akin to the one being enacted and implemented in Arizona. The Post reports that in the Penal Code of California, section 834b, states that California law enforcement units should fully cooperate with the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) with regards to any individual that is taken into custody if the person is allegedly in the United States under the premise on infringing existing United States immigration laws. Advocates of the Arizona law aver that the basis of the law in the state simply follows the gist of existing Federal statutes regarding illegal immigrants. Laws that have been implemented by the Federal government for the past seven decades. The text of the California section reads as follows: With respect to any such person who is arrested, and suspected of being present in the United States in violation of federal immigration laws, every law enforcement agency shall do the following: (1) Attempt to verify the legal status of such person as a citizen of the United States, an alien lawfully admitted as a permanent resident, an alien lawfully admitted for a temporary period of time or as an alien who is present in the United States in violation of immigration laws. The verification process may include, but shall not be limited to, questioning the person regarding his or her date and place of birth, and entry into the United States, and demanding documentation to indicate his or her legal status (Dennis Romero). George Orwell, author of such works as â€Å"Animal Farm† and â€Å"1984†, states that one of the great tragedies in crafting such important legislation, is that thousands of dollars in taxpayers money are wasted in crafting these laws. Many eagerly anticipate for the passage of the law, then downgrade the importance of actually enforcing the law itself. In the time that the debate on the need of the law in the first place, the very thing that the law was crafted for in the first place remains and grows, becoming part and parcel of the life of the society. Until such time that the issue has become too damaging to the society, it is only in that time that the law will be once again resurrected to address the problem, which could have been addressed if the law was enforced earlier (Arizona Immigration Laws). The law that empowered the INS/BICE to enforce the laws on immigration was originally crafted by the United States Congress, with both houses giving unanimous support to the immigration bills, as the laws were enacted in the early years of the 20th century. The laws against illegal immigration were rendered to the hands of the President of the United States, with the belief that the Executive branch will be able to faithfully execute the tenets of the law. The enforcement of the laws went smoothly until the 1960s, when the implementation of the civil rights laws in the United States and the rigorous enforcement of the laws regulating Hispanic immigration into America found themselves at loggerheads in the political circle. Unfortunately, the law against the entry of illegal immigrants coming from the southern American neighbors, particularly Hispanic immigrants, was overthrown to accommodate the caprices of United States Democrat senators, caring more for the support of the affluent farmers in their constituencies than assuring that the laws against the entry of illegal immigrants into the United States was conscientiously enforced (Arizona). But are immigrants actually those that are in violation of United States immigration laws? According to Dr. Weissinger (2003), those that violate immigration laws are not considered as immigrants. In his opinion, there is a wide degree of differentiation against those that willingly infringe on the laws of the United States, and those immigrants that apply for residency in the United States, faithfully complying with the many requirements needed to gain legal citizenship in the United States. The confusion between the two contributes to the illogical responses and connotations attached to the illegal issue and picturing these two as equal issues is the result of dubious logic (Weissinger). The emphasis of the current administration on the strict, unyielding enforcement of the immigration laws has given way to a increased number of deportations by the BICE. In the statement of ICE assistant secretary John Morton, ICE is expected to acquire the needed resources and logistics that will allow the agency to deport more than 400,000 illegal immigrants in 2010. This figure, according to Morton, is an increase of 10 percent over the figures posted the previous year. In addition, increasing numbers of raids on companies and businesses that are allegedly contracting the services of illegal immigrants have registered an increase of nearly four times than the entire administration of former President George W. Bush. In the statement of the ICE, the priority of the agency is the location, arrest and eventual deportation of convicted criminals and other lawless elements in the United States illegally (Jurist Legal News and Research Services, Inc. ). The Department of Homeland Security is also fine tuning its resources intended to enforce Federal immigration laws, revising its 287g program, that gave a mandate to local police authorities to implement immigration statutes, which is considered one of the more disputable aspects of American border policy. But critics of the program aver that the program, originally intended to determine the identity of criminals in the United States in violation of immigration laws, has led to racial profiling by the police authorities in the areas where immigrants abound. They aver that the law gave the power to law enforcement authorities to arrest illegal immigrants even om such minor citations as a broken tail light. But many of the supporters aver the efficaciousness of the program, saying the program has become an effective tool in addressing the problem of illegal immigration (Miriam Jordan). In the new policy to be released by the DHS, the powers of the police to interrogate and arrest illegal immigrants, with the intent of preventing sheriff and police personnel to accost suspected illegal immigrants on the premise that they have violated some fictitious infarction as a means of initiating deportation proceedings against the individual. In the last two years, according to the data released by the Homeland Security Department, approximately 120,000 alleged illegal immigrants were identified with the use of the program, with the majority of the cases ending in deportation of the suspected illegal immigrant. Arpaio, one of the staunchest supporters of the Arizona illegal immigrants law, is also considered one of the most active enforcers of the program on the local level. But the Maricopa sheriff is under investigation by no less than the United States Department of Justice, investigating claims that Maricopa sheriff deputies have utilized skin color as a front to detain Hispanics that they believe are illegal immigrants (Jordan). With approximately 10. 8 million illegal immigrants in the United States, the issue of immigration is considered to be one of the most heavily debated issues in the United States. The Arizona statute, regarded as the harshest measure enacted by a state in recent history against the problem of illegal immigrants, requires that local police establish the fact that a person is an illegal immigrant, that they have logical basis to do so, and to place under police custody those individuals who fail to prove or to present documents that they are in the United States legally. Under the law, the acts of transporting an illegal immigrant and to hire day laborers are also penalized. In the opinion of Senator Pearce, he believes that handcuffs, used on the right individuals, can be considered as an effective crime fighting tool (Tim Gaynor, David Schwartz). At present, there is a large number of undocumented illegal immigrants in the United States. Spread across such states as California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas, the number of illegal immigrants, those that are here to find work and also those who are in America for more nefarious ends, continues to expand due to the reluctance of the Federal government to adequately and faithfully enforce United States laws on illegal immigration. As such, they are becoming burdensome on the systems of the United States; health care, welfare, education, employment and other programs of the Federal government, resources that should have been used for those that are in the United States legally and for its citizens (Arizona). Works Cited Arizona Immigration Law. The Dilemma of Illegal Immigrtion: Enforcment of Current Federal/ State Laws versus Reform. http://azimmigrationlaw. org/articles/the-dilemma-of-illegal-immigration- enforcement-of-current-federalstate-laws-versus-reform/ Gaynor, Tim, Schwartz, David. â€Å"Arizona passes tough illegal immigration law†. http://www. reuters. com/article/idUSTRE63I6TU20100419 Harris, Craig, Rau, Alia Beard, Creno, Glen, Arizona govenor signs immigration law; foes promise fight. Arizona Republic. 24 April 2010. Jordan, Miriam. â€Å"New Curbs Set on Arrests of Illegal Immigrants†. Wall Street Journal 11 July 2009. Jurist Legal News and Research Services, Inc. â€Å"US government increasing enforcement of immigration laws: report†. http://jurist. org/paperchase/2010/07/us-government-increasing-enforcement-of- immigration-laws-report. php Romero, Dennis. â€Å"Californias Illegal-Immigration Enforcement Law is Tougher than Arizonas†. http://blogs. laweekly. com/informer/city-news/california-mirror-arizona/ Thornburgh, Nathan. â€Å"Arizona Police Split on Immigration Crackdown†. Time Magazine 30 April 2010. Weissinger, George, Ph. D. â€Å"The Illegal Alien Problem: Enforcing the Immigration Laws†. http://www. immigration-usa. com/george_weissinger. html

The Problem of Grade Inflation

The Problem of Grade Inflation Grade Inflation: Is A the new C? Quinn, my 9-year-old stepson played on a little league baseball team. He attended most of the practices and played in all the games. I asked one day who won the game today? He looked to his father for the answer. I asked, doesnt he know if his team won? It seems that this little league bent the rules of baseball. Well, they didnt just bend the rules they made up their own rules making sure all the players played, no one struck out, five runs and the other team was up you get my drift. Then to top it off they held a party at the end of the season where everyone received a trophy. I was frankly appalled. Being rewarded just for participation. The prevalence of grade inflation is effecting students, professors and institutions. Students are receiving higher grades than earned. A has become the new C. If our educational system is failing to grade appropriately for attainment of knowledge that students supposedly are there to gain, then what does it all mean? It would seem suitable to compare it to giving every person on a sport team a trophy just for participating. It is a deceptive practice and ethically wrong to give a grade when it truly is not achieved no matter what the reason. The purpose of this argument on grade inflation is to convince students, professors, parents and institutions that the practice of grade inflation must stop. Everyone is affected by the strength or weakness and by the fairness or unjust attributes of our educational system. Grade Inflation has many repercussions. Students receiving higher grades make it difficult to discern the average student from the above average student from the exceptional student. Problem Analysis In my research, I have found educators agreeing that grade inflation is a problem. Over the past decades claims of grade inflation in American higher education have been ubiquitous, with ample evidence documenting its prevalence and severity (Arnold 2004; Summary Weber 2012; Carter Lara, 2016, p. 346). As stated by Rojstaczer 2003, The data indicate that not only is C an endangered species but that B, once the most popular grade at universities and colleges, has been supplanted by the former symbol of perfection, the A (p. A21) It is important to note the causes of grade inflation in the first place. As stated by Rojstaczer and Healy (2010), Faculty attitudes about teaching and grading underwent a profound shift that coincided with the Vietnam War (see graph below). Many professors, certainly not all or even a majority, became convinced that grades were not a useful tool for motivation, were not a valid means of evaluation and created a harmful authoritarian environment for learning. Added to this shift was a real-life exigency. In the 1960s, full-time male college students were exempt from the military draft. If a male college student flunked out, chances were that he would end up as a soldier in the Vietnam War, a highly unpopular conflict on a deadly battlefield. Partly in response to changing attitudes about the nature of teaching and partly to ensure that male students maintained their full-time status, grades rose rapidly. Then there seemed to be a lull in grade inflation until the 1980s when grades b egan to rise again. A new ethos had developed among college leaders. Students were no longer thought of as acolytes searching for knowledge. Instead they were customers (Rojstaczer Healy, 2010). Â   Note. Reprinted from Grade Inflation at American Colleges Universities, by Rojstaczer, S. Two of the more frequently cited sources of grade inflation are faculty status and faculty evaluations Hall (2011 p.146). Professors at some institutions are dependent on good evaluations from students. If the evaluations are not favorable and grades are low, then the teacher becomes suspect. Simply stated, the higher the course grade, the happier the student, and the higher the ratings on the faculty evaluations completed by those students Hall (2011). Motivating the student becomes an issue when the common grade is A. I found support that it becomes extremely difficult for professors to grade honestly because it can be viewed as a sign of poor quality education by the professor, his ratings go down and consequently enrollment in the institutions in future years will suffer. In an article by Stroebe (2016), he discusses grading leniency encouraged by universities. Evidence is presented that the positive association between student grades and their evaluation of teaching reflects a bias rather than teaching effectiveness (p. 800). This cyclic process has only resulted in more problems. Poor student performance in subsequent courses tend to become apparent. Stroebe, a professor in the department of social and organizational psychology, University of Groningen, the Netherlands deliberates the notion that grading leniency or grade inflation is likely to demotivate students. He presents that students overestimate the amount they learn based on the grade they receive. Institutions are at fault here as well and may be the one of the biggest proponents to perpetuating the vicious circle. As Hall (2012) explains in her article, institutional interests also tend to have a significant impact on the prevalence of grade inflation in higher education. With more and more cuts to educational funding, many colleges and universities find themselves struggling to balance their budgets. Students who are happy with their grades are students who are much more likely to remain enrolled thereby filling classroom seats and paying tuition fees (p. 147). An issue that has revealed itself in my research is academic entitlement. The attitude of many of the students today is that they have the right since they are the procurers. (Hall, 2012 p.148). Thought provoking questions are asked by researchers as to the reasons of academic entitlement. As Greenberger, Lessard, Chen Farruggia (2008) ask, What are the circumstances that foster the behavior and attitudes of academic self-entitlement: i.e., expectations of high rewards for modest effort, expectations of special consideration and accommodation by teachers when it comes to grades, and impatience and anger when their expectations and perceived needs are not met? (p. 1194). Rebuttal against grade inflation Then there are those with opposing viewpoints that grade inflation is nonexistent. As Kohn (2002) states, Even where grades are higher now as compared with then, that does not constitute proof that they are inflated. The burden rests with critics to demonstrate that those higher grades are undeserved, and one can cite any number of alternative explanations. Maybe students are turning in better assignments. Maybe instructors used to be too stingy with their marks and have become more reasonable. Maybe the concept of assessment itself has evolved, so that today it is more a means for allowing students to demonstrate what they know rather than for sorting them or catching them out (p. B8) My rebuttal is that over the years attitudes have changed not only of the students, the professors and the institutions. Institutions are not just interested in being the best in providing education, they are not interested in the education business, they are interested in the business of education. Simply put how to make the most money. Professors are interested in keeping their jobs by keeping institutions happy with them. If they give poor grades institutions will think that their teaching ability is poor and students, since they are paying for their education, feel entitled to get good grades or they may give their instructor an unfavorable evaluation. My interview was with a young physician who went to undergraduate school in 2001 then on to medical school, a residency program and an internship. She is currently a practicing physician in a large group practice. One of my reasons for the choice of interviewee is that in the line graph illustrated previously she falls in the time when A is the most popular grade given nationwide. I formulated my line of questions only to be side railed by the very first question; When you were in college, were you aware of grade inflation practices? Her answer was no. Well, I continued, there are quite a few articles written about grade inflation and how prevalent it has become. It has been steadily increasing over the last twenty years. Have you notice that your grades were inflated? She indignantly said, absolutely not! I worked my butt off for every grade I got! the conversation continued as I strove to gain some glimmer of grade inflation recognition. Have you noticed any fellow students getting As that did not put in an A effort? The answer was no all the students I was with were hard working and deserved the grades they received. After the unexpected denial or unawareness of grade inflation could my interviewee fit into the category of entitlement? I decided that it was a case of a hard-working student with drive, motivation and determination to receive the grades that she deserved. She grew up in a time of entitlement, and yes, she does exhibit some of those qualities but she works hard to this day. She may have grown up in the age of entitlement but she is a child of achievement. I would know since she is my daughter. Solution Hall (2012), Argues that in the fight against grade inflation what is lacking are the basic principles of instructional design. There is no framework in place in institutions for measures to prevent grade inflating propensities and actions. Anyone who investigates the sources of grade inflation will ultimately find themselves pointed in the direction of the students themselves. The attitude of many of the students today is that they have the right since they are the procurers. (Hall, 2012 p.148) My experience with attending Chamberlain College for Nursing is that the courses are set up to allow the professors to grade honestly. The grading rubric is beneficial to the student who now knows exactly what is expected of him or her. It makes it a more objective approach to grading. As Kelly (2017) describes, Here are three reasons why I find rubrics truly effective. First, rubrics save time because I can simply look at your rubric and mark off points. Second, rubrics keep me honest, even when Ive had a horrible day . I feel much more objective as I sit before my mountain of papers. More important than these two reasons, however, is that when I have created a rubric beforehand and shown it to my students I get better quality work. They know what I want. They can also see right away where they lost points (p. 1) Benefits I agree with Hall in her analysis of grade inflation. I can see that there are many facets that are all contributing to the problem. Solving one issue will not resolve the problem. Grade Inflating practices are fundamentally wrong. It involves a faculty member to award a grade that is higher than earned. Although it is recognized as being an issue, the inappropriate conduct continues. Hall not only describes the various causes and the rationale why grade inflation continues, but she offers a framework that consists of a different approach to combating the problem with specific objectives, instruction and assessment. It sounds very much like the grading rubric. According to Stevens and Levi (2005), At its most basic, a rubric is a scoring tool that lays out the specific expectations for an assignment. Rubrics divide an assignment into its component parts and provide a detailed description of what constitutes acceptable or unacceptable levels of performance for each of those parts (p.3 ) Conclusion In conclusion, with instructors lowering their grading standards, A has become the most ordinary grade on college campuses. Its like buying a dozen eggs with medium, large, extra-large and jumbo all mixed in one carton. With no true evaluation of students performance, you dont know what youre getting. Students have a sense of entitlement that parents and the environment we live in have fostered over time. Students expect an A with minimal effort. This can be demotivating and discouraging for students who truly give it their all. When there are no guidelines or enforced regulation of grades, the grades given in higher education will have less and less meaning. Its time to stop giving trophies just for participation. References Ad Hoc Committee on Grade Inflation. Final Report of the Ad Hoc Committee Task Force on Grade Inflation. American University, Washington, DC. (October, 10th, 2016).http://www.american.edu/facultysenate/upload/Senate-report-on-Grade-Inflation-Final-10-20-16.pdf. Arnold, R. A. (2004). Way That Grades are Set is a Mark Against Professors. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles. Carter, M. J., Lara, P. Y. (2016). Grade Inflation in Higher Education: Is the End in Sight? Academic Questions, 29(3), 346-353. Doi:10.1007/s12129-016-9569-5 Caruth, D., Caruth, G. (2013, January). Grade Inflation: an issue for higher education. Turkish Journal of Distance Education. v.14, n. 1, p. 102-110. ISSN: ISSN-1302-6488. Fauer, J., Lopez, L. (2009, October). Grade Inflation: too much talk too little action. American Journal of Business Education. v.2, n.7. Greenberger, E., Lessard, J., Chen, C., Farruggia, S. (2008). Self-Entitled college students: contributions of personality, parenting, and motivational factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. (April 4th, 2008), 37:1193-1204. DOI 10.1007/s10964-008-9284-9. Hall, R. A. (2012). A neglected reply to grade inflation in higher education. Global Education Journal, 2012(3), 144-165. Kelly, M. (2017). Creating and Using Rubrics: Make Your Life Easier with Rubrics. About Education. (Updated February 03, 2017). http://712educators.about.com/cs/rubrics/a/rubrics.htm Kohn, A. (2002). The dangerous myth of grade inflation. The Chronicle of Higher Education. November 8th, 2002. 49(11). Rojstaczer S., Healy C. (2016). Where A is ordinary: The evolution of American college and university grading. 1940-2009. Teachers College Record, ID Number: 15928. http://www.tcrecord.org Rojstaczer, S. (2016). Grade Inflation at American Colleges and Universities. www.GradeInflation.com. (March 29, 2016). Rojstaczer, S. (2003). Where all Grades are Above Average. The Washington Post. January 28, 2003. A21. Stevens, D., Levi, A. (2005). Introduction to Rubrics: An Assessment Tool to Save Grading Time, Convey Effective Feedback and Promote Student Learning. Stylus Publishing, LLC. Sterling, Virginia. Stroebe, W. (2016). Why Good Teaching Evaluations May Reward Bad Teaching. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(6), p. 800-816. DOI:10.1177/1745691616650284 Summary, R., Weber, W. (2012). Grade Inflation or Productivity Growth? An Analysis of Changing Grade Distributions at a Regional University. Journal of Productivity Analysis 38.95-107.

The Ashley Treatment Essay -- Medical Research

Parents, no matter their profession, are eternally in the business of raising their children. From their earliest ages, kids are told who they can play with, what they can eat, where they can go, and even when they have to go to bed. But is there a point where parents go too far? In other words, is there a time when in raising a child, a parent interjects in a child’s life so much that those actions become detrimental to the child’s development? This is the physically moral dilemma that comes out of the Ashley Treatment. The procedure that has opened up society’s view on human development brings with it an incredible amount of controversy. Turning to a more theological approach, this procedure raises so many questions regarding the human condition. For instance, how do humans accommodate those with severe disabilities without stripping them of certain natural human rights that every individual is afforded? To take it to a more fundamental level, what ought we to do as humans to help people with disabilities, while at the same time making sure we are treating them as equal beings? Once questions like these can be addressed, the more pointed question can be reflected upon: is the Ashley Treatment ethical? When answering this, it is important to remember that all people deserve a voice in the goings on in the world, particularly when those issues pertain to themselves. Additionally ponder the fact that there are unique cases in which someone else may need to speak on behalf of an individual for that person to be heard. Such is the case for many with profound disabilities like Ashley. The Ashley Treatment is a pretty novel and groundbreaking procedure with incredible ethical discord. This treatment was devised by the doctors of ... ... over their child, in particular regards to profound disability and the â€Å"Ashley Treatment.† Liao, S., Julian Savulescu, and Mark Sheehan. â€Å"The Ashley Treatment: Best Interests, Convenience, and Parental Decision-Making.† Hastings Center Report. 37.2 (2012): 16- 20. Web. 25 Mar. 2012. This essay weighs the benefits and consequences of the â€Å"Ashley Treatment† procedure. It looks at how it was created, why it was used, and ethical justification to validate its use. Ryan, Christine. â€Å"Revisiting the Legal Standards that Govern Requests to Sterilize Profoundly Incompetent Children: In Light of the Ashley Treatment, Is a New Standard Appropriate.† Fordham Law Review. 77.1 (2008): 287-325. Print. This article talks about the controversial â€Å"Ashley Treatment† from a legal and ethical standpoint. It uses the court decisions on this matter to create the author’s argument.

Banking Service in Developing Economies Essay -- Business, Marketing

Whilst the relationship marketing literature is expanding at a rather exponential rate, rapport between customers and front line employees did not get its due attention especially in the context of banking service in traditional, developing economies. This has delimited the efficacy of the established relationship theories in explaining the antecedent effect of trust, commitment, service quality and involvement for developing rapport leading to overall client (customer) satisfaction. The focus of this research, thus, is rapport. This chapter acts as a preamble that sets the ball rolling by presenting the research background; explaining the research problem and scope; and discussing the research questions. A brief note explaining the overall organisation of the thesis is also incorporated at the end of this chapter. In today’s highly competitive business environment, many organizations all over the world have been forced to put more emphasis on retaining their existing customers rather than acquiring new ones. Since conventional transactional approaches to marketing does not seem to be adequate in attaining this and other related marketing goals, many organizations seem to have been moving away from product or brand orientation to relationship marketing orientation which has been viewed as a bridge through which both customers and companies can share each other’s needs and values and can meet their potential expectations by creating two-way exchanges (Bateman and Snell, 2007). In this backdrop, rapport holds a crucial position in the customer-employee relationship arena particularly in marketing of services because it possess characteristics such as interpersonal focus, simultaneous production-consumption and the lack of standa... ...the conceptual model used in the investigation. It also includes a section to discuss four models found in the extant literature which have been replicated in this study to test if the relationships portrayed in them were valid in the Bangladesh context. This was necessary to ensure the validity of the relationships proposed in the conceptual model. Chapter 4: Research Design – Presents details of methodology, sampling procedure, data collection process and discussions on the development of the survey instrument. Chapter 5: Data Analysis – Explains data analysis and research results. Chapter 6: Hypothesis Testing – Presents a detailed discussion on the hypotheses testing procedures and test results. Chapter 7: Conclusion – Explains research contributions of this study for both academics as well as practitioners. Also presents the limitations of the study.

Muslim views on wealth and poverty Essay

The topic wealth and poverty is very important in Islam. Humans naturally love wealth and possessions, but Muslims believe that all wealth is created and given to us by Allah and so it belongs to him. Humans can only work hard but any wealth that is given to them is from Allah. Because of this, Muslims believe wealth should be spent on family and also on those who are in need. What is poverty in Islam Muslims believe life is a test from Allah, and we can either choose to follow him or follow the path of Shaytan (Satan). Muslims believe nothing can happen to them that is outside the plans of Allah. Suffering and pain are part of his plans to test the faith of people. There are two different types of evil according to Hindus: Natural evil which is a result of natural processes. Death comes as a result of committing natural evil. And moral evil. Hindus believe that Hindus just need to commit moral evils such as incest, theft, adultery, lying and murder. They believe this comes from the law of karma. If a person suffers in this world, it is because of bad karma in a previous life. Muslims believe life is a test of obedience to Allah; therefore poverty is a test of patience from Allah. They belief that they are in a wining position because if they don’t have wealth, they are being rewarded for their patience. Non believers do bad things yet they live luxuriously, but Muslims do good and still are poor. This is because they believe that the aim in life is to obey Allah, and their patience will be rewarded, where as non believers, believe that the aim in life is to get as much wealth as possible, which takes them away from the path of Allah, as it says in the Qur’an verse â€Å"To Allah we belong and to Him is our return† (2:156). What is Wealth in Islam and how does Islam deal with it? The Muslim ummah is very important in Islam, as we should treat every Muslim as our brothers and sisters so everyone is responsible for one and other, helping the neighbors and being kind to each other. â€Å"O mankind! We made you from a single (pair) of a male and female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that you may despise each other) Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things)† (49:13) Life is a test for the rich and he poor. The rich will usually have nice lives as Allah has blessed them, but they must not let greed take over their soul. â€Å"Riches are sweet and a source of blessing to those who acquire them in a way: but those who seek them out of greed are like people who eat but are never full†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (The Prophet S.A.W hadith). They must use their wealth in the right way and Allah is testing them. The wealthy should give charity and zakah and earn Halal money. The poor are tested in Islam by their patience. Muslims believe if you are patient then Allah will reward you. They also know that nothing in this life belongs to them; it all belongs to Allah so they should focus on their faith rather than their wealth. â€Å"and know that your possessions and your children are but a trail and that surely Allah is a mighty reward† (8:28) Allah has given us wealth and Muslims know that it doesn’t belong to them. The wealth is not ours; therefore, we should share Allah’s possessions with the poor. Muslims do this by giving charity, such as zakah, sadaqah, sadaqah jariyah etc. What is Zakah? Zakah is one of the pillars of Islam, in which we must give at least 2.5% of our income to the poor. It is compulsory to all Muslims who have enough money to pay zakah, they must have had the money for year, they cant be in debt, they cant be mental and they must be past the age of maturity. â€Å"And (in the daytime and at night) establish the prayer and pay Zakah and [for the cause of your religion and state] lend to Allah a befitting loan, and remember whatever good you send forth for yourselves you shall find it with Allah better than before and greater in reward.† (73:20) The Qur’an demands that individuals take material responsibility for poverty and suffering in the Muslim community (ummah). That is why the Qur’anic revelation above demands that each person give up a certain amount of material wealth to support the poor. We must give zakah to the poor, the indigent, the sick the blind, orphans, the suffering etc. The following table shows the rates of zakah: Wealth Amount Rate Cash in hand or bank Our value of 595g silver 2.5% Gold and silver 85g gold, 595 g silver 2.5% Trading goods Value of 595g sliver 2.5% Cows and buffaloes 30 1 Goats and sheep 40 1 Mining produce any 20% agricultural Per harvest 10% from rain watered land 5% from irrigated land camels Per 5 1 sheep or goat Zakah al Fitr? Zakat al fitr is given at the end of Ramadan, before the eid prayer. It is necessary for who ever is capable to give it. It is to purify your soul, make up for the errors committed during Ramadan and it is also to help the poor on the holy eid day. It is estimated that approximately 3 pounds should be given from each member of your family. Aqiqah? Seven days after the birth of the child comes the aqiqah . it is a celebration where friends and relatives to come and eat and the baby is named. During this celebration the babies’ hair is shaved and by tradition, the same weight of hair in gold or silver is given to the poor, other Muslims offer a sacrifice. The meat is often shared with the family, the visitors and the poor. Sadaqah? Not every one is rich so how can the poor give charity? Charity comes in many forms weather it is giving money to the poor, building a mosque or even smiling at someone. To clean the streets of hurtful things is also a charity. Every one in the world is capable of doing charity as Abu Dharr (may Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Prophet (S.A.W) said â€Å"there is no person who does not have the obligation of (doing) a charity every day that the sun rises.† He also said â€Å"smiling in the face of your brother is a charity†¦ and pouring out from your bucket into your brother’s bucket is a charity.† Sadaqah jariyah Sadaqah is on going charity. The reward for this type of charity benefits the donor even after they have passed away for as long as people receive the benefit from the donor’s charity. Forms of charity can be many things such as providing a well for clean water or even building a hospital. The prophet (S.A.W) said â€Å"when a man dies his action comes to an end except for three: an ongoing charity, knowledge that benefits others and pious offspring who pray for him† Riba/Interest Riba is the Arabic term used for usury. In Islamic terminology interest means effortless profit or that profit which comes free from compensation or that extra earning that is free of exchange. Riba is haram in Islam. The reason for this is because it is concerned a form of injustice, and exploitation. The economy today is debt based, and only does risk transfer, where as the Islamic economy is asset-based and doe risk sharing, it is all about fairness to all parties. The prophet (S.A.W) said † a dirham of usury a man devours with knowledge is greater than thirty six fornications† and it is also reported that he said â€Å"cursed the devourer of usury, its payer, its scribe and its two witnesses, and he said that they are equal (in sins).† Conclusion In conclusion wealth and poverty are very important matters in Islam. As Muslims we should know that life is given to us by Allah, therefore every thing in or possession belongs to Him so we must share our wealth. It is our duty as Muslims to help the ummah, and giving zakah and sadaqah will pure us from our greed and help our ummah. Also everyday friendly gestures such as smiling, helping can be a form of charity so you don’t ever need wealth to give charity.

Use of the Website and Social Media of Woolworths

USE OF WEBSITE AND SOCIAL MEDIA OF WOOLWORTHS LTD Woolworths Ltd is retailer so main goal is to sell. Scale of online shopping increased manifold in last two decades. In present time in developed countries, such as Australia customers can buy online almost everything. On this base arose the need to create a new field of marketing – internet marketing and e-commerce. THE BASIC UTILITY AND USER-FRIENDLINESS OF THE FIRM’S WEBSITES From all 32 divisions of Woolworths Ltd, 16 have websites. Also there is one website which belongs to Woolworths Limited and describes enterprise as a whole.All websites fulfil different roles. DIVISIONS| CHARACTERISTICS| Woolworths Limited| Customers can find reports, media releases, announcements, board of directors and management, information for investors, characteristics of strategies and actions adopted by company. http://www. woolworthslimited. com. au/phoenix. zhtml? c=144044&p=homepage| AUSTRALIA| Woolworths | Woolworths is main division of Woolworths Ltd. Now, there are over 700 stores in Australia which serve over 13mln customers every week. Its website is the most developed from all divisions.Customers can buy online goods via site, get information about performances, use interactive options, store locator or leave feedback. http://www. woolworths. com. au/wps/wcm/connect/website/woolworths| Thomas Dux Grocery| Website provides only information about new coming products, promotions, recipes and store locator. http://www. thomasdux. com. au/| BWS Beer Wine Spirits| Via this website customers might only find information about types of alcohol sold in stores, current offers in stores. Except from wines and beers in this sores there is possibility to buy hard liquor. ttp://www. beerwinespirits. com. au/| Dan Murphy’s| This is online shop where customers can buy all types of alcohol. Additionally, customers get knowledge about offers and events. http://danmurphys. com. au/dm/home. jsp| Cellarmasters| Online sh op – selling wines only (white, red and sparkling). Also provides information about hot deals and gifts. http://www. cellarmasters. com. au/| ALH Group| Website of Woolworths’ hotels. Customers may find information about company, media releases, venues, social responsibilities. http://www. alhgroup. com. u/| Caltex Woolworths/ Safeway Petrol | Website has information about products, offers, rewards, gift cards, safety issues, petrol station locator. http://www. woolworthspetrol. com. au/home| Big W| Online shop (home & garden, beauty & health, baby, electronics, entertainment, toys, sports & leisure) store locator, online catalogue, and big sale in stores. Has link to Facebook account. http://www. bigw. com. au/bigw/home. jsp| Dick Smith| Electronics online shop – TV & Video, Audio & Mp3, photography, computers, printers and office, mobiles & wireless, car & GPS, gaming, home & security, kids technology.Customers can take advantages of online deals, store locato r and links to social media websites (Facebook Twitter, YouTube). http://dicksmith. com. au/dsau/home. jsp| Masters Home Improvements| Website provides only information about new coming products, promotions, store locator and tips about decoration – Ideas & Inspirations. http://masters. com. au/| NEW ZEALAND| Countdown| Countdown fulfils the same role as Woolworths in Australia – main supermarket in New Zealand. Online shop, offers, stores, community, overview of company. http://www. countdown. co. z/| Super Value| Website provides information about current promotions, new releases, overview of company, tips about food and nutrition. http://www. supervalue. co. nz/| Fresh Choice| Website has the same layout as Super Value site – only colours are different. Store differs from Super Value by wider range of products (SV – convenience store, FC – full-service store). http://freshchoice. co. nz/| Dick Smith Electronics| Its website has the same layout a nd content as Australian Dick Smith’ website. Online shop. http://www. dicksmith. co. nz/dsnz/home. jsp| INDIA|Croma| Website provides information about electronics products available in stores, special offers and news and media. http://www. cromaretail. com/| Table shows there are two main purposes of running website in case of Woolworth’s divisions. One of them is to provide information about products, current special offers, and overview of company, media releases and news, recipes and tips which can be useful to customers. It is used so the client can get the information he needs before leaving home. Customers focus on saving time and money and comparing offers to choose the best one which would fit their needs.Companies realise that they must become competitive in its sector to ensure marketing success. Seven divisions have online retailers. It is a very dynamically developing branch in retailer world. Online shopping statistics give full view on this subject. * 8 8% internet users undertake one or more e-commerce activity * 69% have purchased one good or service in last six months * 1 in 5 Australians do most of their shopping online * Australian traffic to online retail sites: * eBay – 5,576,000 unique visitors * Amazon – 2,191,000 unique visitors Woolworths – 1,488,000 unique visitors * Average 15% growth of internet shopping every year since 2005 * Market share of internet shopping of 7% of all retail sales (14% growth from last year) * Australian-based ecommerce sales – A$16. 9bln in 2009, A$33. 3bln in 2015 These facts bring about that online shopping has dormant potential which most companies need to utilise to acquire new customers. To be successful a company must develop its website so that it will be attractive to customers. This attractiveness is defined as user-friendliness of the website.There are some common characteristics features which determine user-friendliness: access to site map, logical naviga tion structure, low frequency of errors occurrence, consistent design and layout, access site search tool, access to contact details, easy language, search engine friendly, easy access to main navigational links in the page heading and footer and access to links to social media. There are also many more criteria which makes websites user-friendliness. Following table shows application of these elements on companies’ websites. – has feature and is user-friendlyX/+ – has feature but is not user-friendly X – doesn’t have feature | Site map| Navigational structure| Low errors occurrence| Design and layout| Site search tool| Woolworths| X| +| +| +The best design| +| Thomas Dux Grocery| +/XBad visibility| X/+| +| X/+Poor design| +| BWS Beer Wine Spirits| +| +| +| X/+Poor design| X| Dan Murphy’s| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| X/+Only for products| Cellarmasters| X| +| +| +| +| ALH Group| X/+Bad visible| +| +| X/+Old fashion style| X| Caltex Woolworths/ Safeway Petrol| X/+Bad visible| +| +| X/+Old fashion style| +| Big W| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| +|Dick Smith (AUS and NZ division)| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| +| Masters Home Improvements| X| +| +| +| +| Countdown| X| +| +| +| X/+Not on home page| Super Value| X| +| +| +| X| Croma| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| +| | Contact details| Easy language| Search engine friendliness| Navigational links| Social media links| Woolworths| +| +| +| +| +Facebook| Thomas Dux Grocery| +| +| +| +| X| BWS Beer Wine Spirits| +| +| +| +| X| Dan Murphy’s| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| X| Cellarmasters| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| X| ALH Group| +| +| +| +| X|Caltex Woolworths/ Safeway Petrol| +prominent| +| +| +| X| Big W| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| +Facebook| Dick Smith| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| +Facebook, Twitter, YouTube| Masters Home Improvements| +| +| +| +| +Facebook, Twitter, YouTube| Countdown| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| +Facebook, YouTube| Super Value| +| +| +| +| X| Croma| X/+Bad visible| +| +| +| X| The tab le shows that generally websites are user-friendly. Weak points are repeated in some sites. The most common weakness is placing site map and contact details in bad visible location – usually in page footer.Second thing is poor and old fashion design – computer graphic is well developed and websites should adapt new solution to increase attractiveness and relevance of website. Smaller retailers do not engage in internet marketing and e-commerce. They use only information function in relation to their customers. Other elements work out smoothly and internet users should not have problems with navigation on the websites. Simplification for young people is the use of social media links. User-friendliness of the websites should be assessed positively. WEBSITES AND THE CUSTOMERSInternet sources announce various rankings and list of top online retailers. On the list of 60 most popular listing retailers there are 3 retailers belong to Woolworths Ltd: #7 – Dick Smiths El ectronics, #8 – Dan Murphy’s and #18 – Woolworths. List of Australia’s top 10 online retailers from February 2011 contains 2 retailers: again Dick Smiths and Big W. Dick Smiths were on the list three years in the row so it shows how well running is the website. Design, updates and layout of website encourage customers to shopping online. Success of Big W is spectacular because it started its activity on the Internet at 10th May 2010.The easiest way to check what costumers think about company is to follow forums where they express their opinions. There are massive numbers of people who buy online and most of them do not complain about the quality of shopping on the Internet via its websites but complain about time they have to wait for delivery. Is it website fault? Delivery is next stage of internet purchase so probably people who organise work in warehouses bear responsibility for delay time. References Communications report 2010–11 series Report 1 – E-commerce marketplace in Australia: Online shopping [Online] Available from http://www. cma. gov. au/webwr/_assets/main/lib410148/CR_comp_report1-E-commerce_Marketplace_in_Australia. pdf [Accessed on 01st January 2012] Most Popular Listings [Online] Available from http://www. aussie-shopping. com/directory/popular-listing. html? limitstart=20 [Accessed on 01st January 2012] Walsh, J. , 50 Tips to a User Friendly Website [Online] Available from http://www. designinginteractive. com/design/50-tips-to-a-user-friendly-website/ [Accessed on 01st January 2012] Online shopping: Woolies or Coles? [Online]

Porters Forces Cruise Industry Essay

Porter’s Six Forces I. Threat of New Entrants: Low * Barriers to entry: High * High Capital Requirements: The capital required to start up a cruise line is one of the key factors contributing to this industry’s high barriers to entry. With the average cost of building a cruise ship rising, the amount of capital needed to start up a cruise line is estimated at one billion dollars. Therefore discouraging any new entrants into the industry. * High Brand Equity: A cruise line’s brand awareness and reputation are significant factors to the industry’s high barriers to entry. Cruising is a risk-averse activity, which influences consumers to trust and purchase from established cruise lines. That being said it would be difficult for any new entrants with low brand equity to successfully compete with this oligopolistic industry. (Dowling, 2010) * High Economies of Scale: The cruise line industry has a major cost advantage over any new rival based on two types of economies of scale. These cost savings contribute positively to the liners profitability. * Economies of Destiny: These â€Å"mega-ships† are built with a large number of cabins and lower berths aiding in the spread of substantial fixed costs over many passengers. Therefore, resulting in lower unit costs and making the product much more appealing and affordable to more parts of the population by achieving a break-even point at lower prices. Cruise liners also have a strong incentive to reach high utilization ratios in order to achieve such economics, which result to such discounting. (Dowling, 2010) * Economies of Fleet Size: This is where fixed costs that require a substantial financial capital such as research, design, construction, training, sales, administration, marketing and advertising are spread over a large number of ships. (Dowling, 2010) II. Rivalry Among Existing Firms: High * High Concentration Ratio: The cruise line market is characterized by high concentration, as there are a few but strong market players that make up 90% of market share. The two leading players, Carnival and Royal  Caribbean, account for 75% of the market with each owning a portfolio of lines catering to a specific market. A high concentration ratio allows existing firms to work together in the market and reduces the likelihood of intense price competition between the leading players. This allows them to achieve mass-market penetration. (Cruise Watch) * High rate of industry growth: The cruise industry has had a steady growth over the last five years with a 7.8% increase. The growth increase and high concentration intensify the competition among the leading players to seek ways of gaining a competitive advantage. â€Å"New ships, global destinations, itineraries, and innovative shipboard facilities have driven constant growth in cruise passengers. â€Å" (CLIA) * High competitor diversity: Cruising is characterized by high heterogeneity and this offers the chance for diversification both vertically (quality) and horizontally (variety). (Dowling, 2010) Because of this there is an intensive and ongoing commitment to provide a superior product by offering distinct services, activities, and appealing itineraries that reflect the interests of today’s traveler. Therefore, although the market is oligopolistic which keep competitive pricing low, competitors must make there cruise the most appealing to gain a competitive advantage. * High exit barriers: Cruise companies have high exit barriers due to the difficulty the company may have selling their assets. Cruise lines require large capital requirements that strap the company from leaving the industry and face difficulty when trying to find any potential buyers. III. Threat of substitutes: Medium * Types of available substitutes: In the leisure-industry substitutes includes resorts, theme parks, traveling by air or land, and various other vacation destinations. Research shows that in 2011 only 3% of Americans have vacationed on a cruise, leaving a vast percentage of the population choosing alternative vacations. * Distinctiveness of cruise experience: Cruising is perceived as a more expensive vacation alternative compared to land-based trips, however there is a strong belief among consumers that cruising offers high value for the price consumers pay. Cruising is looked at a full package by offering bundles of travel packages including airfare, dining, itineraries, resort stay, and multiple other amenities. Therefore, a cruise  offers a distinctive type of experience that most consumers would choose over various other traveling substitutes. (UCLIA) IV. Bargaining power of buyers: Medium * Travel agencies: Travel agencies have strong relationships with the cruise industry as they book around two thirds of their cruise. Although this percentage is declining due to the growth of consumer knowledge and technology the percentage of cruisers using travel agents is relatively strong. (UCLIA) * Low price sensitivity: As cruising may be categorized as a luxurious leisure-activity, its target market on average have high annual income of $82,000 – $97,000 with the average age of a cruiser being in their late forty’s. Therefore, they are not as sensitive to pricing, as the price of a cruise vacation is relatively low to the average income of the target market. * Peak seasons: During peak seasons when demand exceeds capacity buyers have lower bargaining power as opposed to when ships offer last minute discounts in order to avoid any empty berths. Therefore making the bargaining power of the buyer medium as competition is relatively high during these seasons, and extreme discounts are offered when demand decreases. * Low threat of backward integration: The huge amounts of capital required to purchase a cruise ship along with the various amenities included make it extremely difficult for any consumers to provide themselves with the cruising experience. Therefore, lowering the bargaining power of the buyer. V. Bargaining power of suppliers: Medium * Fuel and Ships: The bargaining powers of fuel and ship suppliers are relatively high. An increase in the price of fuel not affect the fuel cost of the ship but will cause an increase in the ticket price in order to make up for increased cost. As there are a limited amount of ship building lots and ship builders cruise lines must accept the number given to them. If they do decide to switch builders switching costs are very high because the ship builder owns the design of the ship he builds and therefore the company must raise a large amount of capital in order to go back to the drawing board. * Food and other suppliers: However on the other end most all other suppliers in the hospitality leisure-industry have low buying power. This is because there are many different substitutes available and multiple  suppliers to choose from ranging from food, drink, and alcohol to many others. This makes the bargaining power of suppliers on the other end very low. VI. Relative power of the stakeholders/ Complimentors : High * Rapid Growth: The rapid growth in the cruise industry has resulted in spiked environmental stress and awareness. The cruising destinations offered are frequently those in threatened environments such as the Mediterranean and Caribbean. There are many ways cruise lines can team up with other stakeholders in order to reduce the environmental impact of this growing market. They can work together with local governments and communities to develop management plans for sustainable growth, create standards, and increase their passenger and crew awareness of environmental issues. Companies may also directly contribute to sustainability by investing in local community projects and organizing on-board fundraising. (Mittermeier) * Governments: â€Å"Governments are responsible for enacting policies that protect natural and cultural resources, and providing a supportive enabling environment, for example, by offering financial or business incentives to cruise lines and local businesses for responsible management and operational practices.† (Mittermeier) Therefore, companies must maintain a positive and trusting relationship between governments and other stakeholders in protecting the environment. This will ensure the passengers on board will enjoy a safe vacation and the destinations remain healthy and attractive to the passengers who will visit in the future. Work Cited: Cruise market watch . (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.cruisemarketwatch.com/market-share/ CLIA. (n.d.). Profile of the u.s. cruise industry. Retrieved from http://cruising.org/pressroom-research/cruise-industry-source-book/profile-us-cruise-industry Cruise lines international association, inc.. (2012, February). Retrieved from http://www.cruising.org/sites/default/files/pressroom/2012CruiseIndustryUpdat eFinal.pdf Dowling, R. K. (2010). Cruise ship tourism. CABI. Mittermeier, R. (n.d.). Sustainable stewardship. Retrieved from http://www.worldcruiseindustryreview.com/feature_articles/WCR017/Sustainable.pdf Rodrigue, J., & Notteboom, T. (1998). The geography of transport systems. Routledge. Retrieved from http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch7en/appl7en/ch7a4en.html Wheelen, T. L., & Hunger, J. D. (2012). Strategic management and business policy. (13 ed., pp. 159-161). New Jersey: Pearson.